Mass Media
Mass Media includes the means of imparting information, to influence the ideas
of enormous numbers of people. In the last 75 years, such technological innovations
as radio, motion pictures, recorded music, and television have become important
agents of socialization. The purpose of this assignment is to go over certain
media tools, what there effect is, how they can be used better, and how influenced
media is itself by other factors.
TELEVISION
Television brings the whole world in one’s living room, and it influences
the minds of all with native as well as alien concepts. In Pakistan television
effects not only the urban class but also to a very large extent the rural population.
Wherever people have access to electricity television becomes one of the first
guests at home. Centering sometimes not only the people of the house, but also
the people of the neighborhood. In this way television reaches out to million
of viewers. However the interaction that television allows for is minimal. It
is a passive experience, watching TV by oneself or even when you’re watching
it with many around you. There remains hardly any room for interaction between
the viewers themselves. In urban classes this lack of interaction is even starker,
where in every house, there will be more than one TV. Television in the lounge,
and television in every bedroom, isolates members of the house from each other,
as they all sit down to watch their own favorite show alone.
These days television doesn’t come alone, in the package, it brings with
it local channels, private and public both, as well as a host of international
channels via cable and the dish antenna. The effect of these is different according
to their approach. In virtually 300 rupees, now we have up to 80 channels with
the press of a button, consequently the privacy of the lounge is no longer limited
in scope.
Western as well as Indian media has had such a strong influence on the minds
of our people, and their choice that now even local channels are adhering to
outside cultures to increase its viewers. Showing fashion shows, music concerts
with free mixing, women dancing on TV, excessive glamour are things that were
not present on PTV in the past, now there’s hardly the chance that one
can ignore this on TV. This is called cultural imperialism, in which we are
completely taken over by outside influence.
Nearly all age groups are effected by television. The youth as well as the older
people, who have no one to talk to now, so they have to become best friends
with TV as well. Now people don’t wish to give each other time and for
that reason everyone has to make arrangements for their own isolated entertainment.
People, who have less knowledge like villagers, will often times believe anything
shown on TV to be true. We see the ZEE culture fast entering our lives, our
TV, and in our films also. Today there is hardly any difference in the perception
of an Indian, or Pakistani. Sitting and watching TV doesn’t require any
effort from the lazy person. One book can take a lot of time to read, and people
in whom reading habits have not been inculcated will always turn to TV for quick
entertainment. With repeated messages, these ideas become well ingrained in
the mind of the viewer because visuals have such a strong effect.
Many parents in essence allow the television set to become a child’s favorite
playmate, consequently children end up watching nearly up to three hours of
television per day. In the United States between ages 6 and 18 the average young
person spends more time watching TV (15,000 hours than working in school (13,000
hours).
Television has certain distinctive characteristics. It permits imitation and
role-playing, but doesn’t encourage more complex forms of learning. Watching
television is above all a passive experience; one sits back and waits to be
entertained. . The programming that children view as they sit for hours in front
of the television set alarms critics of television. It is generally agreed that
children as well as adults are exposed to a lot of violence on TV. By age 16
the average TV viewer has witnessed some 200, 000 acts of TV violence including
33,000 fictional murders.
Television is not always a negative socializing influence. Creative programming
such as Sesame Street can assist children in developing skills. Exposure to
the world, other lifestyles and cultures also increases awareness. To say that
television has only negative effects and that we should throw it out of the
house is not correct. Educational programs, news bulletins, documentaries, geographical,
historical programs have their positive influence, which can in no way is negated.
Television is capable of helping to overcome learning barriers for many person-
presenting important ideas, providing information etc. a UNESCO team experimented
with television in the African country of Senegal to educate women about dysentery
and child care etc. The results of the television campaign were spectacular
78% were able to give a correct understanding of dysentery after having viewed
such programs on television, only 16% remained with an incorrect understanding
and only6 % had no views at all. The point is that television can be used for
the right purposed and thereby also be found to be very effective.
Educational and informative programs can be introduced. What we are faced with
today however is a situation when television is not used to its full potential.
The extremist ‘maulvi’ will suggest throwing the television out of
the house, because they find no other way to deal with the situation. We must
realize that television itself is mubah, meaning it is neither good nor bad,
it is the way it is used that will make it any one of these.
Today we see a lot of false propaganda against the Muslims on television and
a lot of incorrect information being passed around. On the other hand there
are some channels which simply show the recitation of the Quran telecast for
the whole day. It would be a better idea to use the channel for purposes of
informing people not only with the translation of the Quran but also its explanation.
Religion is a complete field, and there is a lot that can be discussed and shown
about it. Scholars could be bought on TV with all viewpoints. Interactive discussion
can be held between them, quiz programs, correspondence courses can be started
etc. What is most important to understand however, is that the presentation
of these programs should be captivating, not the sort that makes one want to
switch the channel.
Usually Islamic programs are most boring and dull in presentation, with old
people talking about dogma, and complex shariah, in difficult language, attiring
a garb and attitude that would not encourage the youth to watch the program.
Also such programs are not shown in prime time. What we need to do, is to address
the issues we are faced with today, call young people to speak, to view their
comments and inhibitions. Easy language, programs in English, in which young
people speak of their enlightening experiences is really called for. We can
mourn for this culture, but we have do something more than that, if people demand
to be taught in English, then we must meet that demand, because on the Muslim
is the duty to give the message forward with wisdom. Intellectuals should be
called in to become audience at such shows, the sets should be attractive, and
these shows must not go at a snail’s slow pace.
Religious enlightenment for children can also be carried out through TV. People
want their questions answered and television can be used to clarify misconceptions
rather than add to them. Another aspect of television is Drama, this too can
be used for bringing out more moral, and ethical issues. These days we see on
our local channels dramas filmed in foreign countries, to expound on how people
live there. This is not the call of the day when there is so much resentment
among our young people. There is a lot within this country that can be shown
in dramas also. A new firm in shadman area has started providing access to regulated
cable. They give only good channels, and censor any smut or filth that may be
shown on these channels. This is a spark of hope.
FILM
Cinema is also a great influence on the people, especially the lower middle
class living in urban areas, primarily targeting the male population. This group
of society is usually not well educated. People who stay out of the house, thereby
having limited viewing of television will make use of entertainment provided
by the cinema. Film viewing has however entered the domestic premises via VCR’s.
Those who cannot afford to purchase a VCR can loan it for whole night and watch
three movies till daybreak! The impact of film on moral behavior and attitude
is also intense. However our film industry chooses to make films that will sell
because of their lack of realism. Reality is hardly ever depicted in our movies,
with the emphasis being on dancing in parks, and wearing otherwise un-wearable
clothes.
The first thing that needs to be worked at in this regard is a strong censorship
policy. Our censor board needs to have well-educated and sensible people, who
are well paid also. Otherwise with the current condition, most movies buy themselves
out of the censorship policies. Thereafter life-size and larger billboards of
scantily dressed women, in obscene ways is painted all across the city. Religious
organizations, as well as people like us need to take a stand against this practice
in Lahore. If better messages could be explained through movies that would be
much more far-reaching. Iranian film policy is really an example for us. They
have the strictest censorship policy, as well as hijab/satar rules for women
appearing on the big screen. Yet the movies are really a class in their own,
and done with such great professionalism. The message conveyed is great and
it is something one can watch with the whole family.
All this only comes with educating all stratums of society. Also there should
be a check on the influx of pirated movies from across the border. However if
we provide healthy entertainment by our selves, outside influences would not
be such a threat. Also it is important not to blame others for the loose censorship
policies in the country. Censorship begins at home. If we teach our children
the criterion between right and wrong in the best way then the chances are that
they will not fall into this terrible trap. However, if we sit at home, watching
all obscenity on our home channels with children and ourselves also, then the
message they get is that it is all right to watch vulgarity. There have in the
past been movies such as Khana-e-Khuda shown at Rattan cinema, which was a raving
success.
RADIO
In the earlier days when just radio was relied on for information, good programs
were put on air. Radio has played a very important part in imparting knowledge
to people. Even today in the rural areas, programs on farming etc. are listened
to and benefited from. Radio must also be made participatory such as call-in-live
services should be offered. These days we have music channels such as FM100,
which have gained popularity because the style of presentation is more enthusiastic.
Similarly station for religious programming, or putting informative programs
on air during primetime is very important. Radio can still be used to its fullest
potential.
RECORDED MUSIC
Recorded music has opened for us avenues of audiocassettes and CD’s. These
are being used currently for promotion of Islamic material. The access to these,
however, should be made easier.
MAGAZINES
Magazines are also an effective way of reaching out to people. With colorful
and attractive outlay, messages can be delivered in an efficient manner. Many
magazines are currently available for religious information such as Renaissance
from Al-Mawrid, many magazines from Tanzeem-e-Islami, one from Islamabad Al-Huda
etc. the call of the day however is to have more attractive and well-distributed
and publicized magazines. It is imperative to target the younger generation,
so magazines in English must be introduced also. Focus has to be made on better
printing quality of magazines, as well as advertising and circulation.
NEWSPAPERS
Newspapers in Pakistan do have openings for at least one religious page a week,
such as Iqra in The News. People who have knowledge of deen and the world should
contribute to such papers and make full use of this media. Optimum benefit must
be derived from the press. In the ‘Protocols of the Zion’ one of the
Jewish plans is also to take over the world by press influence. People need
to get into the profession of journalism, and write for newspapers. The print
media has the potential to reach all major cities and some rural areas also.
BOOKS
Lots of books are already published. Books however are not as far-reaching because
of a low literacy rate, and also because people don’t have developed reading
habits. Reading habits must be inculcated in children and our youth to make
full use of this medium. Books are a powerful source of information and a treasure
for any nation. They must be easily available at cheaper costs, and also be
well printed. The only way to make use of this media tool is to have an educated
people.
INTERNET
In the age of today, a lot of emphasis is placed on the Internet, as it becomes
the fastest communication tool. Numerous sites open up at the click of a button.
While it may be having negative effects such as young people being left open
to easily available pornography sites, It has many positive effects. A large
number of sites on Islam are easily available, so a lot of work has already
been done in this sphere. At the same time however, there is a lot of negative
propaganda against Islam, and also sites on Islam created by non-Muslims, which
give a bad picture of this religion. We need to have people who can answer issues
that these web sites raise, and at the same time have many more correct sites
on Islam as well.
PAMPHLETS/BROCHURES/POSTERS
These also have far-reaching effect, and can be easily distributed. Currently
also we see a lot of pamphlet distribution to promote religion. However one
must be wary of the sectarian promotion that may go by this cheap and easily
accessible communication tool. Brief things are always easier to read, so this
can be an effective way of reaching out to people. Writing skills of individuals
must be developed and they must be fully conscious of the audience they are
going to address. Writing in a casual style that will be easily understandable,
whether it is English or Urdu should be considered.
MOSQUE
The mosque is one of the oldest ways of communicating a message. The mosque
must now become the center of community activity. The place provided by the
mosque and the environment must be used to optimum benefit. Lectures, meetings,
discussion, taleem circles should be held at mosques so men women and children
can collect there, and center their lives on religious activities. In America
the Muslim community makes great use of the masjid, and most people become friends
there. Our masjid must be used in a similar way and become centers of learning.
Knowledge must no be limited to the khutba on Friday or Eid, but evening classes
and other activities should be arranged. To make announcements, have nikah,
janaza, etc the mosque and become an ideal place, and the space must be made
full use of, so we can re-build our lives on the pattern of Medina.
THE REALITY OF MASS MEDIA
Mass media are inherently corrupting. A small number of owners and editors exercise
great power over what is communicated to large numbers of people. Participatory
media organized as networks, such as telephone and computer networks should
replace mass media. Strategies to supersede mass media include changing one's
own media consumption patterns, participating in alternative media and using
nonviolent action against the mass media.
Complaints about the mass media are commonplace. To begin, there is the low
quality of many of the programs and articles. There is the regular portrayal
of violence, given an attention out of proportion with its frequency in everyday
life. More generally, most of the mass media give much more attention to crime,
deaths, disasters, wars and strife than to harmonious communities, acts of kindness
and win-win conflict resolution. The mass media frequently create unrealistic
fears about criminals, foreign peoples and mass protest.
"News" often is more like entertainment than information or education.
News reports, especially on television, are typically given without many overt
contexts. The latest events are described, but there is no explanation of what
led up to them or caused them. Consumers of the media consequently hear a lot
of facts but frequently don't understand how they fit together. "Context"
is the result of the assumptions behind the facts, and this context is all the
more powerful because it is neither stated nor discussed.
Even the "facts" that are presented are often wrong or misleading.
Powerful groups, especially governments and large corporations, shape the news
in a range of ways, such as by providing selected information, offering access
to stories in exchange for favorable coverage, spreading misinformation, and
threatening reprisals.
Advertising is another powerful influence on commercial media. Advertisers influence
what types of stories are presented. But more deeply, advertisements themselves
shape people's views of the world. They are a pervasive source of unreality,
fostering insecurity and consumerism.
There are indeed many problems with the mass media. But some media are much
better than others, judged by the criteria of accuracy, quality and independence
of special interests. Most media critics seem to believe that it is possible
to promote and develop enlightened, responsive, truly educative mass media.
Efforts at reform can be worthwhile, but have intrinsic limits.
The problem is not with media in general, but with mass media, namely those
media that are produced by relatively few people compared to the number who
receive them. Most large newspapers, television and radio stations fit this
description. Mass media by their nature give power to a few and offer little
scope for participation by the vast majority. The power of the mass media is
corrupting. The only surprise is how responsible some mass media are. Given
the corruption of power, reform of the mass media, although useful, should not
be the goal. Instead, the aim should be to replace mass media by communication
systems that are more participatory
WHAT CAN WE DO NOW
The issue we are faced with is to move away for the type of mass media that
we have to a participatorier media, in which the views and issues of all the
stratum of society are considered important.
In order for any significant shift away from the mass media to occur, there
must be a dramatic shift in attitudes and behaviors. People who neither watch
television nor read newspapers are now commonly seen as eccentrics. A shift
needs to occur so that they are supported, and it is the heavy consumers of
the mass media who are given little reinforcement. Such shifts are possible.
For example, anti-smoking activism has dramatically changed attitudes and policies
in a few countries about smoking in public.
In order for withdrawal from using the mass media to become more popular, participatory
media must become more attractive: cheaper, more accessible, more fun, and more
relevant. In such an atmosphere, nonviolent action campaigns against the mass
media and in support of participatory media become more feasible. Such campaigns,
especially if supported by social movements, in turn make changes in personal
media habits more likely and acceptable. Possible ways to go about doing this
could include taking steps on our own, and not just waiting for the government
to take action, or someone else to do the job for us. We are concerned in this
issue, therfore we must take responsibility, following our some strategies to
go about this
· subscribing to alternative magazines and supporting small presses;
· writing material for newsletters and small magazines;
· publishing one's own newsletter, magazine or books;
· organizing meetings of friends to discuss issues of significance;
· doing community organizing with techniques such as public meetings
and door-to-door canvassing;
· listening to and producing programs for community radio and television;
· participating in computer discussion groups;
· using short-wave radio;
· running workshops on developing skills for network media;
· developing campaigns that help build skills in using alternative media
and don't rely on mass media;
· Participating in self-managing media enterprises.
Media has the capacity to greatly influence the ideas and behavior of people.
The mass media allow many people to enjoy and learn from the efforts of some
highly talented performers and personalities, including actors, musicians, athletes,
journalists and commentators. The mass media, especially radio and television,
can come in handy in emergencies: messages can be broadcast, reaching a large
fraction of the population. The table can however be turned also. For promotion
of needless policies such as family planning as a national level campaign, the
media, which includes the press, TV and radio have played their part. According
to Maulana Maududi in his book titled “Birth Control” such campaigns
of family panning do not fall in the realm of Islam. Children are a blessing
in this deen, and Allah is responsible for their Rizq. Below is attached an
article for reference about how effective the mass media has been in the promotion
of family planning:
Volume 26, No. 1, March 2000
DIGEST: Women's Exposure to Mass Media Is Linked to Attitudes toward Contraception
in Pakistan, India and Bangladesh
Exposure to general media programming and to family planning messages through
the media has a strong impact on reproductive attitudes and behaviors in Pakistan,
India and Bangladesh. According to analyses of national survey data, women in
all three countries who regularly watch television and those who have been exposed
to explicit family planning messages are more likely than other women to approve
of family planning. Having listened to explicit family planning messages on
radio or television is associated with contraceptive use in all three countries.
Pakistan
The analysis of media effects for Pakistan is based on data from the National
Demographic and Health Survey of 1990-
1991 and the Pakistan Contraceptive Prevalence Survey of 1994-1995. The samples
for these surveys included 6,611 ever-married women aged 15-49 and 7,922 married
women aged 15-49, respectively. The husbands of one-third of the women in the
earlier survey were also interviewed.
The proportion of women not exposed to radio television or print media declined
from 59% in 1990-1991 to 43% in 1994-1995. Over the same time period, women's
exposure to radio (27% vs. 33%) or television alone (30% vs. 46%) increased,
while exposure to print media remained stable (14%). During that period, the
proportion of women who had never heard a family planning message on either
radio or television fell from 79% to 38%.
The more types of media a woman was exposed to, the more likely she was to practice
contraception. Forty-five percent of women exposed to all three forms of media
were using a method at the time of the survey in 1994-1995, compared with 31%
of women exposed to two types of media and 9% of women exposed to no media.
Further, women who had heard family planning messages on both television and
radio and those who had heard a message on the radio only were more likely to
use a method than were women who had not heard such messages (32% and 27% vs.
8%).
Among women not currently practicing contraception, media exposure increased
the likelihood that they planned to use a method in the future. For instance,
58% of women exposed to three forms of media in 1994-1995 said that they would
practice contraception in the future. Fifty-two percent of women who had heard
family planning messages on both the radio and television reported that they
intended to use contraceptives.
According to multivariate analyses that controlled for social and demographic
characteristics, women who were regularly exposed to television were 1.4-1.6
times as likely as women without media exposure to know of at least one modern
method in 1990-1991. During the same period, women who had heard family planning
messages on the radio were 1.5 times as likely as other women to know of a modern
method. Women who had been exposed to general television programming were 20%
more likely than women who had not to have discussed family planning with their
husbands (Table 1).
Media exposure had strong effects on attitudes toward family planning. In both
periods, exposure to television, to print media or to family planning messages
on radio or television significantly increased the odds that a woman approved
of family planning (odds ratios, 1.3-2.2). The strength of this effect increased
between the two periods for exposure to print media (from 1.4 to 1.7), to family
planning messages on the radio (from 1.3 to 1.6) and to such messages on television
(1.7 to 2.2).
The effect of media exposure to family planning messages on usage was significant
only in the later period: In 1994-1995, women were 53% more likely to be using
a method if they had heard such messages on the radio and 68% more likely to
do so if they had been exposed to them on television. Exposure to general television
programming had a significant effect in both periods (odds ratios of 1.7-1.8),
while exposure to print media such as newspapers and magazines had a significant
effect only in the later period (1.3).
When intention to use a method in the future was considered, the effect of general
radio programming was significant only in the earlier period (odds ratio of
1.5), while that of general television exposure became significant in the later
period (1.4). Print media had a stable, significant effect over both periods
(1.4). In contrast, the effect of exposure to family planning messages grew
stronger over time and became significant in 1994-1995 for both radio (1.8)
and television (1.5).
The effects of general media exposure on whether women expressed their fertility
desires in numeric terms were significant only in 1990-1991 for radio (odds
ratio of 1.6) and in both years for television (1.5 and 1.2). Exposure to family
planning messages on radio and television had a significant effect only in the
later period (1.5 and 1.9, respectively).
Spousal discussion of fertility desires was significantly higher among women
who had listened to the radio in the earlier period (odds ratio of 1.2) and
among those who had been exposed to television or to print media in the later
period (1.4 and 1.3, respectively). Women who read newspapers or magazines were
significantly more likely to want no more children in both periods (1.5 and
1.4); watching television had a significant positive effect only in the first
period (1.3), while exposure to family planning messages on the radio had a
significant effect only in the later period (1.2).
In a separate analysis of media effects on illiterate women, listening to the
radio had significant positive effects on all reproductive attitudes and behaviors
except wanting no more children (odds ratios of 1.3-2.0) in the earlier period,
but had such effects in the later period only on approval of family planning
and expressing fertility desires in numeric terms (1.2 each). In contrast, general
television programming had significant positive effects on the majority of variables
in both periods.
Having heard family planning messages on the radio significantly affected only
knowledge of modern methods (1.7) and approval of family planning (1.3) in 1990-
1991, but had significant effects on all seven of the attitudes and behaviors
measured in 1994-1995. Exposure to such messages on television followed a similar
pattern.
The 1990-1991 survey included husbands. Men who listened to the radio were significantly
more likely than those who did not to know of a modern method, to approve of
family planning, to intend to use a method in the future, to discuss family
size with their wife and to want no more children (odds ratios, 1.4-1.7). The
odds that men knew of at least one modern method were even more elevated among
those who had heard family planning messages on the radio (3.4). In addition,
men exposed to print media were more likely than other men to approve of family
planning, to have ever used a method, to currently use a method, to have discussed
family size with their wife, to want no more children and to provide a numeric
response when asked about their desired family size (1.6-2.7).
For couples, the odds of knowing of a modern method were significantly associated
with exposure to radio, television or print media (odds ratio, 2.3). In addition,
couples in which both the man and the woman had heard family-planning messages
on radio or television had increased odds of knowing of a modern method.
HOW INFLUENCED IS MASS MEDIA ITSELF
Chomsky and Herman's "propaganda model" of the media postulates a
set of four "filters" that act to screen the news and other material
disseminated by the media. These "filters" result in a media that
reflects elite viewpoints and interests and mobilizes "support for the
special interests that dominate the state and private activity." These
"filters" are: (1) the size, concentrated ownership, owner wealth,
and profit orientation of the dominant mass-media firms; (2) advertising as
the primary income source of the mass media; (3) the reliance of the media on
information provided by government, business, and "experts" funded
and approved by these primary sources and agents of power; (4) "flak"
(negative responses to a media report) as a means of disciplining the media.
Even a century ago, the number of media with any substantial outreach was limited
by the large size of the necessary investment, and this limitation has become
increasingly effective over time. As in any well-developed market, this means
that there are very effective natural barriers to entry into the media industry.
Due to this process of concentration, the ownership of the major media has become
increasingly concentrated in fewer and fewer hands. As Ben Bagdikian's stresses
in his book Media Monopoly, the 29 largest media systems account for over half
of the output of all newspapers, and most of the sales and audiences in magazines,
broadcasting, books, and movies. The "top tier" of these -- somewhere
between 10 and 24 systems -- along with the government and wire services, "defines
the news agenda and supplies much of the national and international news to
the lower tiers of the media, and thus for the general public" The twenty-four
top-tier companies are large, profit-seeking corporations, owned and controlled
by very wealthy people. Many of these companies are fully integrated into the
financial market, with the result that the pressures of stockholders, directors,
and bankers to focus on the bottom line are powerful. These pressures have intensified
in recent years as media stocks have become market favorites and as deregulation
has increased profitability and so the threat of take-over.
The media giants have also diversified into other fields. For examples GE, and
Westinghouse, both owners of major television networks, are huge, diversified
multinational companies heavily involved in the controversial areas of weapons
production and nuclear power. GE and Westinghouse depend on the government to
subsidize their nuclear power and military research and development, and to
create a favorable climate for their overseas sales and investments. Similar
dependence on the government affects other media.
Because they are large corporations with international investment interests,
the major media tend to have a right-wing political bias. In addition, members
of the business class own most of the mass media, the bulk of which depends
for their existence on advertising revenue (which in turn comes from private
business). Thus Herman and Chomsky:
"The dominant media forms are quite large businesses; they are controlled
by very wealthy people or by managers who are subject to sharp constraints by
owners and other market-profit-oriented forces; and they are closely interlocked,
and have important common interests, with other major corporations, banks, and
government. This is the first powerful filter that effects news choices."
Needless to say, reporters and editors will be selected based upon how well
their work reflects the interests and needs of their employers. Thus a radical
reporter and a more mainstream one both of the same skills and abilities would
have very different careers within the industry. Unless the radical reporter
toned down their copy, they are unlikely to see it printed unedited or unchanged.
Thus the structure within the media firm will tend to penalize radical viewpoints,
encouraging an acceptance of the status quo in order to further a career. This
selection process ensures that owners do not need to order editors or reporters
what to do -- to be successful they will have to internalize the values of their
employers.
The main business of the media is to sell audiences to advertisers. Advertisers
thus acquire a kind of de facto licensing authority, since without their support
the media would cease to be economically viable. And it is affluent audiences
that get advertisers interested. As Chomsky and Herman put it, "The idea
that the drive for large audiences makes the mass media 'democratic' thus suffers
from the initial weakness that its political analogue is a voting system weighted
by income!"
This also has had the effect of placing working class and radical papers at
a serious disadvantage. Without access to advertising revenue, even the most
popular paper will fold or price itself out of the market. Chomsky and Herman
cite the UK pro-labor and pro-union Daily Herald as an example of this process.
The Daily Herald had almost double the readership of The Times, the Financial
Times and The Guardian combined, but even with 8.1% of the national circulation
it got 3.5% of net advertising revenue and so could not survive on the "free
market".
As Herman and Chomsky note, a "mass movement without any major media support,
and subject to a great deal of active press hostility, suffers a serious disability,
and struggles against grave odds." With the folding of the Daily Herald,
the labor movement lost its voice in the mainstream media.
Why do the media rely on information provided by government, business, and "experts"
funded and approved by government and business? Two of the main reasons for
the media's reliance on such sources are economy and convenience: Bottom-line
considerations dictate that the media concentrate their resources where important
news often occurs, where rumors and leaks are plentiful, and where regular press
conferences are held. The White House, Pentagon, and the State Department, in
Washington, D.C., are centers of such activity.
Government and corporate sources also have the great merit of being recognizable
and credible by their status and prestige; moreover, they have the most money
available to produce a flow of news that the media can use. For example, the
Pentagon has a public-information service employing many thousands of people,
spending hundreds of millions of dollars every year, and far outspending not
only the public-information resources of any dissenting individual or group
but the aggregate of such groups.
To maintain their pre-eminent position as sources, government and business-news
agencies expend much effort to make things easy for news organizations. They
provide the media organizations with facilities in which to gather, give journalists
advance copies of speeches and upcoming reports; schedule press conferences
at hours convenient for those needing to meet news deadlines; write press releases
in language that can be used with little editing; and carefully organize press
conferences and "photo opportunity" sessions. This means that, in
effect, the large bureaucracies of the power elite subsidize the mass media
by contributing to a reduction of the media's costs of acquiring the raw materials
of, and producing, news. In this way, these bureaucracies gain special access
to the media.
The dominance of official sources would, of course, be weakened by the existence
of highly respectable unofficial sources that gave dissident views with great
authority. To alleviate this problem, the power elite uses the strategy of "co-opting
the experts" -- that is, putting them on the payroll as consultants, funding
their research, and organizing think tanks that will hire them directly and
help disseminate the messages deemed essential to elite interests. "Experts"
on TV panel discussions and news programs are often drawn from such organizations,
whose funding comes primarily from the corporate sector and wealthy families
-- a fact that is, of course, never mentioned on the programs where they appear.
"Flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program.
Such responses may be expressed as phone calls letters, telegrams, e-mail messages,
petitions, lawsuits, speeches, bills before Congress, or other modes of complaint,
threat, or punishment. Flak may be generated by organizations or it may come
from the independent actions of individuals. Large-scale flak campaigns, either
by organizations or individuals with substantial resources, can be both uncomfortable
and costly to the media.
Advertisers are very concerned to avoid offending constituencies who might produce
flak, and their demands for inoffensive programming exerts pressure on the media
to avoid certain kinds of facts, positions, or programs that are likely to call
forth flak. The most deterrent kind of flak comes from business and government,
who have the funds to produce it on a large scale.
REFERENCES:
Manufacturing Consent or Necessary Illusions via Internet
Site on family planning via Internet
The protocols of the Zion
Birth control by maulana maududi
Sociology by Schaeffer and Lamm
A study of the impact of televiewing to school achievements by Misbah Ali
Other Internet sites
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