The Chemical Composition of the Universe
An article by:
Comm. R.M. Wey
Research into the key components that make the universe what it is has found that they are primarily that of hydrogen and helium.
All other elements present [including those necessary for life on class M planets], for example, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron, are considered no more than trace impurities.
Measurements taken from various sources show the universe to be approximately twenty-five percent helium and seventy-five percent hydrogen, with about ten hydrogen atoms to every one of helium.
These measurements remain constant whether the object examined was a star or a cloud of gas. And helium is found in cosmic rays [which are not radiation, but rapidly moving particles such as hydrogen (or helium) nuclei].
Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe; all other elements are the result of nuclear fusion. Helium is formed by the combining of four hydrogen nuclei, but observations have shown that the amount of helium in existence today did not occur as a result of nuclear fusion.
How then do we account for the twenty-five percent that does exist? It has been postulated that [approximately one minute after the universe was created], as the universe began to cool, formation of helium became possible. And as the universe continued to cool, these formations came to a halt.
Now, wherein this does not [in itself] support the theory of the big bang, strong evidence exists in the fact that an isotope [or variation] of hydrogen, known as deuterium, is found.
That it exists at all [for unlike helium, deuterium cannot be formed from nuclear reaction] demonstrates that its creation would have been around the same time as the original helium, or during the big bang.
All other elements, including those that made us, are the result of stellar supernovae explosions, or simply put: cosmic debris.
The Nuclear reactions of stars
An article by:
Comm. R.M. Wey
Research conducted into the nature of stellar nuclear reactions has determined that two basic types exist. They are: Proton-Proton chain, and the Carbon-Nitrogen cycle.
Both are responsible for the conversion of hydrogen nuclei into helium nuclei, and thus matter into energy. Both are similar to the reactions associated with those that occur within the detonation of a hydrogen bomb.
Due to the fact that helium is lighter than the hydrogen nuclei combined to create it, a certain amount of ‘residual’ matter is converted into energy that can be measured thus:
Using Einstein’s formula E=MC2 , in metric units
the velocity of light is(
3 x 108 )[or three hundred million] meters per second; So c3 is equivalent to (9 x 101 6 ) more than ninety thousand trillion energy units.The nuclear reaction method used by earth's sun in its conversion of matter into energy is the proton - proton chain. However, as our sun ages, its method of conversion will change to that of the carbon - nitrogen cycle as its interior temperatures begin to increase.
Though considerably more complicated, the net result is the same…Four hydrogen nuclei to one helium.
And that, in the early stages of the universe [say a fraction of a second old]as the particles andAnti-particles collided, only the positive particles remained.
Further studies will be made and updates provided.
Matter and Antimatter
an article by:
Comm. R.M. Wey
Matter exists all around us, and for every particle, there should be a corresponding antiparticle. For though such objects are readily created in a laboratory, their existence in the universe is not so easily proven. Thus, research has been conducted into this peculiar anomaly.
One particular possibility, though hard to prove, is that when the universe was created, there were a desportionately greater number of matter particles to antimatter ones.
And that, in the early stages of the universe[say a fraction of a second old]as the particles and antiparticles collided, only the positive particles remained.
Further studies will be made and updates provided.
Dark Matter: Hot and Cold
and some of it Baryonic
as well as shadow matter
an article by:
Comm. R.M. Wey
Thus far, we have discussed the chemical composition of the universe as well as the fusion reaction of stars. Yet in all this, we have yet to really know what all comprising thing makes the universe what it is.
We do know that the current amount of matter discovered is not enough to account for our universe
as it is, thus, it has been postulated that ‘dark matter’ [consisting of failed stars, galaxies, etc.]comprises ninety to ninety-nine percent of the universe itself. One possibility, the neutrino, is now considered to be in the class of ‘hot’[meaning fast moving]dark matter.Cold dark matter is the ‘all encompassing’ name given to those particles that would have come about from the big bang at low velocity. Such cold dark matter would consist of neutrino like particles that were heavier than protons.
It has been suggested that these theoretical particles[being WIMPs, or weakly interactive massive particles]with such names as ‘photino’, ‘wino’, ‘zino’, and ‘selectron’ would form into galaxy size clumps first, and that masses the size of galactic clusters would begin to form later.
However, these two theories fail most in the explanation of how galaxies and clusters of galaxies formed. And thus the idea of ‘shadow matter’ was considered.
Some of the superstring theories due predict a substance that would interact with ordinary[or baryonic]matter only through the force of gravity.
However, if such ‘shadow matter’ did exist, it would not be seen, nor felt, and would simply pass right through you.
And if it does exist, it might consist of nothing more than particles of similar material as cold and hot dark matter.
Of course, dark matter may not be matter at all!
Instead, it may simply be the cosmological constant that Einstein added to his theory of gravity. That the theory and observation do not concur, proves only that more research is in order.