Roles of Bangkok 
Bangkok is the largest and most important of the cities in Thailand. It is the centre of the monarchy, the bureaucracy and the central elected government, as well as being the major legal, commercial and industrial centre of the country. Bangkok is also a major city in the Southeast Asia region, playing an important international role, and acting as a stopover point for major international airlines. About two thirds of the urbanised population of Thailand live in Bangkok. 

Relationships with the hinterland and other centres 
Relationship with the hinterland 
Since Bangkok is the seat of national government, and because decision-making is so centralised, people who live in the hinterland, and even in the remotest provinces of Thailand are directly affected by decisions made in Bangkok. 

The relationship between Bangkok and its hinterland is very unequal. Bangkok's monthly household income is more than double that in the provinces, and it dominates the rest of the country in most spheres of life. The high level of consumption of natural and processed resources in the city has a dramatic impact on the hinterland. For instance, during the 1980s there was a huge increase in demand for fuel and electricity in Bangkok, which led energy planners to build large dams for hydro-electric power, displacing many thousands of rural-dwellers, many of whom end up in the squatter settlements of the city. 

There are plans to expand Bangkok into satellite cities within the "Extended Bangkok Metropolitan Region", covering several provinces. This would result in dramatic changes in land use, employment, and social structures in these areas. 

Bangkok's international role 

Economically, Bangkok has become a significant global exporter of textiles, car parts, electronic goods and other consumables. It has become a centre for international meetings and decision-making, and is host to international organisations such as ESCAP, FAO and the Mekong Secretariat. Further, Thailand now has strong links with Indochina and Burma, and often acts as the centre of the increasingly interdependent mainland Southeast Asian economy 

Morphology of Bangkok 
Bangkok is located at the north of the Gulf of Thailand, on the Chao Phraya river delta system. The Chao Phraya river carries much water and sediment during the monsoonal rainy season (July-November). Bangkok is built on the mud of the river delta, and so is extremely low-lying (one metre above sea level), and cris-crossed by many channels. It is frequently subjected to flooding and continues to sink slowly to the sea. The location of Bangkok was chosen because it was difficult to attack, and because since it was ideal for growing the Thai staples of rice and fish. Initially buildings in Bangkok were on stilts or on mounds, and more than 100 "khongs", or canals were dug, adding to the city's many natural river channels. Water transport was the major form of transport. Household and other waste was disposed of directly into the khongs, which were daily flushed out by the river tides, and coped well with the small population of that time. 

Periods of growth and decline 

The growth of Bangkok: 
Bangkok was founded in 1782, after the former capital of Thailand - Ayutthaya - was invaded by the Burmese. It was established as the seat of royal power, and continues to serve this role today. Eventually, it expanded its role as a trading centre. At the start of the twentieth century Bangkok had a population of 600 000. Since then it has grown very rapidly, especially after World War II. The use of Bangkok as a "rest and recreation" city by the U.S. and its allies during the Vietnam War (with increased prostitution of women and children), the industrial and suburban growth of the city, and more recently, the expansion of tourism in Bangkok have all contributed to the population growth of the city, reaching 5.7 million in 1994. 

Rural-urban migration  

Bangkok is expanding rapidly into surrounding provinces within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. Natural increase is part of the reason for the population growth of Bangkok, however rural-urban migration is the major factor. Most of the migrants are unskilled and semi-skilled women in search of work and education, many from the rural North-east. In addition to this, about one million migrants come to Bangkok in search of work during the dry season (November-May), also from the poor North-east. 

TNCs and urban growth 

Transnational corporations (TNCs) are increasingly shaping the growth of Bangkok. Many North American and Japanese car manufacturers are moving their assembly and component plants to Bangkok, and other North-east Asian countries including Taiwan are also shifting their industry to Thailand and other cheap labour economies of Southeast Asia. International investors have pushed up the land prices in Bangkok CBD. Recently, there has been a boom in the building of golf courses to cater for a minority of wealthy Thai and overseas residents. These golf courses are built on vast tracts of prime agricultural land, while poor and landless Thai farmers go without the bare necessities. 

Human geography of Bangkok
 
Income and residence patterns 
One fifth of Bangkok residents live in slum or urban poor areas. About 75% of these live on land which is privately owned, but not currently being used. Those living in squatter settlements are at risk of forced eviction at any time, and the likelihood of this has increased greatly with the boom of the construction industry. In an effort to avoid eviction, many locate themselves on public land such as railway sidings or on port authority land. One of the urban poor communities lives on the Bangkok Metropolitan Authority garbage dump, Phra Khanong. The urban poor here make a living from recycling materials from the rubbish dump - unpleasant and unhealthy work, but work which provides better family earnings than in other areas. Apart from the urban poor areas, there are some very wealthy suburbs with large dwellings catering for the elite, and middle-class suburban housing estates. High-rise condominiums in the inner city are available for those with sufficient income and the desire to avoid the long journey form home to work. 

Religion 
Most Thais are Buddhist, but there is quite a large minority of Muslim residents living around Mosques in Bangkok. 

Transport 
Land which is close to transport nodes is of particularly high value. The main form of urban transport is roads, with an emphasis on the short-sighted and expensive option of freeways. Water transport is increasingly popular, but serves only those living along the waterways. A mass-transit scheme has been proposed for some time, but there is much political debate over the location and type of transport proposed, which is delaying any action. It seems that the proposed "Skytrain" would be the most effective solution in an area which is so prone to flooding and subsidence, compared to underground transport. 

Zoning 
Government control and planning is limited since government regulations which restrict land use, building heights, and other urban parameters are frequently breached. 

Urban processes and environmental quality 

The consumption patterns of Bangkok have great impacts on the rest of the country, as described above. Within the city itself there are many environmental problems associated with urban processes. 

Subsidence and flooding 
Since 1950, the Chao Phraya river has been too polluted for drinking, and fresh water has been pumped from aquifers underneath the city. As the city continued to expand, more and more water has been extracted, and underground water quality is deteriorating and the city is subsiding more rapidly. Currently 250 square km of Bangkok subsides more than 10cm per year. The city subsidence encourages flooding and breaks up footpaths and roads. Subsidence has also indirectly reduced agricultural land near Bangkok since rich city-dwellers purchase topsoil to build up their subsiding properties. The replacement of canals with roads has increased flooding and subsidence. The subsidence of Bangkok is of particular concern since the Greenhouse effect it is expected to raise sea levels, and hence further flood this low-lying city. 

Pollution 
The major forms of pollution in Bangkok are water, air, and noise pollution. Air and water pollution have increased greatly with the growth of industry in Bangkok. The in-filling of khongs to make roads has impeded water flow and made many khongs stagnant. The Chao Phraya river is dying despite being flushed out by tides and the river current. Currently there is no practical rubbish disposal alternative for riverside communities other than dumping waste into the river. However, some attempts are being made to raise awareness of water pollution, to provide garbage boats and to briefly treat wastewater before it enters the river. The major cause of air pollution is car exhaust. Particulate air pollution is very severe and carbon monoxide and the lead content of car fumes are especially dangerous. Since 1985 the number of registered motor vehicles has risen to at least three million. Vehicle owners modify muffler and exhaust systems so that street noise is particularly high, and drivers of three-wheeler scooter taxis have been found to suffer permanent hearing loss. Motor boats that use the khongs are also very noisy. 

Congestion 
During the 1980s traffic volume increased more than 25% per annum, as foreign investment increased motor vehicle sales. Traffic congestion is now extremely severe in most parts of Bangkok, and is exacerbated by flooding. This further reduces air quality, the quality of life in Bangkok, slows down business, and it can take up to four hours to commute to work and back. Japan, Germany and the Netherlands have helped build several elevated expressways, but these are not very effective since traffic congestion still occurs at the end of the expressway where the normal road system resumes. It is likely that traffic problems will continue to increase and this could discourage investment in Thailand as well as exacerbate social and environmental problems in Bangkok. 

Urban processes and social well-being 
 
Bangkok experiences problems such as drug addiction, crime, and homelessness which are found in most cities around the world, as well as problems specific to developing countries. These problems result from the rapid growth of the city without corresponding provision of public social welfare services and systems. Transnational corporations and local businesses have provided some employment, but have not catered for the housing, transport and other facilities required for the increase in population resulting from their presence. This has placed a great strain on land and city administration, and public provision of services has failed to keep up with the population growth. A huge amount of wealth has been created by the economic growth of Thailand, but most of this wealth is concentrated in the Bangkok, and is very much unevenly distributed within the city. However, even the poorly-funded public education and health services are better in the city than in other areas of Thailand. 

Management and Planning Issues

The rapid growth of Bangkok has been especially detrimental socially and environmentally because it has occurred without any planning. The solutions to Bangkok's problems are expensive, but will be more expensive if left untended. The major issues for management and planning in Bangkok are subsidence, flooding, and urban transport. 
Planning authorities 

The Bangkok Metropolitan Authority (BMA) is the authority responsible for the management and planning of Bangkok. However, this body is weak and ineffective because strong financial interests make it hard to enforce controls. Much of the so-called planning is dominated by real estate developers. The expansion of Bangkok into areas beyond the BMA's boundaries also mean that BMA has no control there. AS a consequence, an Urban Development Commission has been set up to plan the Extended Bangkok Metropolitan Region. This body is more powerful and seeks greater public participation than the BMA. 

Subsistence 
In the early 1980s water extraction from the underground aquifers was controlled, and dropped 8% with a subsequent increase in ground water level to 2.5m and a decrease in subsidence. These trends are positive, but it will take a long time to recover the 40m water table drop which has occurred since pumping began. Also, the 1994 pressured the government to offer new pumping licences because alternative water sources were scarce. 

Flooding 
More dykes and barriers will need to be built in order to avoid flooding, and rainwater will be pumped out of the protected area into the river. Some dykes and barriers already exist, but new dyke systems will need to be designed so as not to ruin farmer's crops in the surrounding areas. The greenhouse effect is predicted to raise sea levels, cause more storms and tropical cyclones and storm surges. Such storm surges further raise the sea level and are espceailly pronounced at the head of a gulf, such as where Bangkok is situated. 

Urban transport 
Ferry services have improved urban transport to a degree. However, most of the responses to Bangkok's traffic problems is to build more roads and expressways. This is an expensive, short-sighted strategy, since it encourages more traffic onto the roads in the long-run and removes funding for more viable transport alternatives. 

The future of Bangkok 
The future of Bangkok is uncertain. There has been some discussion of moving Bangkok to another location, but this does not appear to be very likely or viable. There has been some effort to decentralise Bangkok, with tax incentives, but with limited results. Since there is so little parkland or open space in Bangkok, a greenbelt has been proposed, but with the high demand for land for residences and industrial buildings, it is unlikely that this will be implemented. It is clear that Bangkok residents are frustrated and wanting their problems to be addressed, but it remains to be seen how they can help shape the future of their large city.