Basics
of Language Acquisition
Background
In the
1999-2000 school year, I attended
earned my CLAD credential.
Below is a compilation and a summary of the
three of the four classes needed
for the credential.
I was fortunate to have had Roger Gallizzi as
my instructor for each of these courses.
Language Acquisition Theory
Theories, Hypotheses and Paradigms
Four subsystems of linguistics
Stages of Language Acquisition
Transferring Primary to Secondary Language
Common
Underlying Proficiency vs. Separate Underlying Proficiencies
Language Acquisition Methodologies
Strategies for Low English Proficient Students
The relationship between theories, hypotheses, and paradigms
Each of these is related through time and process. A paradigm must first be a theory, and a theory must first start as single hypotheses. A hypotheses is predictor of a phenomenon. Researchers accumulate hypotheses through research findings and attempt to establish proof through observation or experimentation. A theory does not have to be absolutely proved to be valid, but it must be accepted by peers in the field of study. When a theory is widely accepted by researchers, then it is delivered to practitioners through various channels, i.e. journals, seminars, or university classes. Once the theory is widely in practice and a general acceptance is gained, then it may become a paradigm. It becomes a paradigm, when practitioners and researchers use the theory to explain and discuss issues then it is a paradigm. The process from hypotheses must go through these steps, and a paradigm may only survive if there is not equally accepted research contradicting it. Many times paradigms are a one step in the evolution of the next paradigm that will replace it, so knowledge is always building upon present accepted knowledge.
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A
general overview of the four subsystems of linguistics
The four subsystems of linguistics are as follow; phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Phonology is the study of all the elements of sound associated with language which give meaning to the language. First, phonemes make up the individual sounds within words. Second, pitch describes the intonation of a sentence and the meaning derived from the intonation. For example, the intonation of question rises, so without understanding the words we know that a question has been asked from the intonation. Third, stress can lend different meaning to words or sentences.
Morphology is the study of the individual parts of the words that have meaning. These parts cannot be broken down any farther and still have meaning are called morphemes. For example, an s is a morpheme, because it has the meaning to indicate more than one noun.
Syntax is the study of how sentences are arranged and their relationship to give meaning. Syntax reveals words arranged in various orders in a sentence can change the meaning of the sentence. Also, each language carries a specific word order. For example, in English if a sentence begins with a verb (auxiliary), then the sentence will be question. Native speakers instantly and subconsciously recognize these nuances that lend meaning to speech.
Semantics is the study of the meaning of the language being spoken. In order for communication words must have meaning and must be connected to a commonly shared associated idea.
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Definition of Language
Above all else, language is used for communication. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols, but
the symbols have conventionalized meaning to which they refer. The symbols are primarily vocal, but may also
be visual. Language is also systematic
and generative. Finally, all people
acquire language in much the same way.
Language and language learning both have universal characteristics.
Universals of Language
I. Word Order
II.
Morphological
Order, i.e. small units carrying meaning, afixes
III.
Tone
IV.
Agreement of
subject and verb
V.
Reduced
reference, i.e. pronouns
VI.
Nouns and
noun classes, i.e. proper, vocative
VII. Predication, i.e. to say something about something else
VIII.
Negation
IX.
Question
Formation
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Stages of Language Acquisition
PRE-PRODUCTION P
EARLY PRODUCTION EP
SPEECH EMERGENCE S
INTERMEDIATE FLUENCY I
NATIVE FLUENCY
Stage 1 Pre-Production
Minimal comprehension
No verbal production
Receptive to English
when:
Listening matching
Miming moving
Drawing role playing (silently)
Pointing Choosing
Stage 2 Early Production
Limited
comprehension
Minimal verbal
production
Receptive to English
when:
Naming categorizing
Labeling responding with 1 or 2 words
Listening
Stage 3 Speech Emergence
Good comprehension
Many pronunciation
and grammatical errors
Produces simple
sentences with limited descriptive vocabulary
Receptive to English
when:
Describing retelling defining
Summarizing explaining comparing and contrasting
Stage 4 Intermediate
Fluency
Excellent
comprehension
Near-native speech
Few pronunciation
and grammatical errors
Receptive to English
when:
Giving opinions analyzing reading
Synthesizing debating writing
Evaluating justifying examining
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Stephen Krashen’s Monitor Model
Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis is Krashen’s belief that all people have a device in their head that edits all forms of language. The editor analyzes all language comparing each word or phrase to what the editor has acquired or learned. The more information the editor has stored, then the more correctly the language will be. Three criteria must be present for effective use of the monitor. First, the speaker must have ample time to analyze each word or phrase and check for correctness. The language may be incorrect syntactically, pragmatically, or grammatically incorrect, if a statement is spoken too quickly. Second, the focus of the conversation must be on form rather than on communicating an idea. Much meaning can be communicated through just a few words not connected in a sentence, but the monitor would reject this as incorrect. Third, the editor must have learned a rule or have acquired a sample of correct speech to compare correctness with.
Affective Filter Hypothesis
The affective filter refers to the emotional state of the student due to his/her environment or personal traits. The affective filter is a negative that blocks students from acquiring language. Anxiety represents one of the major factors effecting the affective filter. There are two types of anxiety pertinent to the affective filter: trait anxiety and environmental anxiety. Trait anxiety is a student’s tendency to be nervous or fearful in a classroom situation. Some students are simply nervous people. Environmental anxiety is the negative emotional state created by the teacher, other students or conditions in the classroom. If a student is not comfortable emotionally, then the student will not be able to acquire language. An example, if a student was made to recite passages in front of the room or if the teacher mocked the student’s speaking, these would definitely lower the affective filter. A student with sufficient self-confidence can overcome minor affective issues and continue to acquire. Also, if a student has a strong motivation for acquiring the target language, then this can also help the student to lower the affective filter.
Natural Order Hypothesis
Krashen believes people acquire a second target language much in the same way that they acquired their first language. Krashen uses research to indicate specific words are acquired before others, and these function words are consistently acquired in a specific order regardless of the native language of the learner. Krashen also contends grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order in L1 and L2. However, we can not anticipate grammatical structures or morphological structures and teach to these structures. Teachers can only provide a literate environment exposing the students to many different language forms. We can not force language from our students much in the same way we can not force an infant to speak, but rather as with children we must focus on communicating meaning.
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen believes people acquire a second target language much in the same way that they acquired their first language rather than learning about and then speaking the target language. For a person to acquire a second language, Krashen believes they must go through the same stages they did in acquiring their first language. They would go through a long listening stage in which they are not able to construct the necessary sounds. Next, the students would start using one word to communicate meaning, and as time passes put two words together to communicate meaning. The language continues to evolve as they introduce more vocabulary to their speech and modify their speech into complex sentences. As students go through these stages of acquisition formal teaching does not help like it would in learning about a language, because acquisition is subconscious rather than the conscious effort required in learning about a language. Teachers should not correct the students’ language, but rather they should model language and take what the student knows and build upon it. Correct forms of language or specific vocabulary should be introduced as the students encounter the need or experience the language.
The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis
Krashen’s last hypothesis concerns communication. In order for students to acquire language or
to build on their existing amount of language, students must understand or
comprehend communication directed toward them.
However, the students must also enlarge their language capabilities, so
language known to the students must be combined with the unknown, I+1. There are many strategies to make input
comprehensible, but the simplest and most effective is visual relationship. A picture of a cow with the
spoken or written word cow aides in the communication and taps into students’
prior knowledge. This is
effective if it is directly related to topic being communicated and plays a
role in the student’s life. Modified
speech is very necessary to for comprehensible input. A slower rate of speech, with level
appropriate vocabulary and omission of idiomatic phrases aids in
communicating. Much the same holds true
for written text, the text must be level appropriate for the students to comprehend
meaning with appropriate contextualization.
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Basic Cognitive
Interpersonal Academic
Communication Language
Skills Proficiency
Cummin’s Quadrants
Cognitively
Undemanding
Context
Embedded
Context
Reduced
A B
|
Cognitively Undemanding |
|
Context Embedded |
|
Context Reduced |
C D
Cognitively Demanding
Each of the four quadrants represent two conditions relating to contextualization and cognitive difficulty. Quadrant A represents a task that is context embedded and cognitively undemanding, while the opposite is quadrant D, context reduced and cognitively demanding. Examples of quadrant D are word problems in math, because both the test and the word problems challenge cognitively to solve the problems without the aid of visuals, manipulatives or realia. Whereas in quadrant A all of these may be used to learn. An example of Quadrant B would be telephone conversation with a friend, because the conversation requires little cognition and there is little contextualization, because the people are limited to only one sense, hearing. Acquisition or learning is much more effective when contextualization is present, and teachers should always be teaching from either quadrant A or quadrant C. Yet, students are still at times required to perform task in quadrant D, like when they are forced to take a written English test. Teachers can prepare the students for performing in quadrant D by teaching them skills using quadrant C.
Jim Cummins’ Threshold Hypothesis proposes a specific point in dual language development where cognitive growth can be accelerated through the acquisition of a second language. High levels of proficiency in both languages must be attained in order to reap the benefits of cognitive growth. Studies have indicated significant advantages in cognitive tasks go to proficient bilinguals when compared to monolinguals. However, if a student does not develop either of the languages (limited bilingualism), negative cognitive effects can exist. Yet if the student reaches a high level of proficiency in one of the two languages, neither positive nor negative cognitive effects are evident.
Literacy in L1
· Directionality
· 1 to 1 correspondence
· Letter sound meaning
· Letters
· Words
· Beginning and end
· Prediction
· Reciprocal gains, i.e. the more you write the more reading will improve and vice versus
· Serial Order
· Self-correcting or monitoring
· Cueing system
· Problem solving
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These theories are exact opposites of each other and there is no middle ground between the two hypotheses. Proponents of the SUP Hypothesis believe what one learns in L1 cannot be transferred to L2. The proficiency a person has in their native language cannot be used when accessing their L2, so the languages are completely independent. Whereas, CUP proponents believe interdependency exists between L1 and L2. Each language uses the same foundation to build upon. Students do not have to relearn character representation or directionality of text. In addition, the stronger the foundation in L1 the student will more readily excel in L2, both in academics and the language itself. An example of this is two students who immigrate, and the student who has a strong academic background excels in English, while the student that has little formal schooling struggles to learn English. Also age supports the CUP hypothesis, students who are old enough to have mastered their native language more readily acquire English. They do not have to relearn knowledge of language. SUP may seem probable to some, because on the surface in basic conversation people only see extensions of each language, and many commonalities in language are taken for granted.
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Comprehensible Input
Language Contextualization
Language
Modification
Repetition and
Paraphrase
Use of media,
realia, manipulatives, and other modalities
In order to question students effectively, the teacher must know the students’ stage of development. Even students in the silent stage of their development can answer questions by nodding, pointing, circling, or a variety of other actions to demonstrate not only comprehension of the teacher but also to answer the question posed. As the students progress, they become ready for the next level of questioning in which the question presents the answers, i.e. “either or questions.” For example, the teacher may phrase a question to determine a student’s favorite cola as follows: “Do you like Coke or Pepsi better?” versus “What is your favorite cola?” In the first, the student only has to recognize the words whereas in the latter example the student must recall the word from memory. As students progress further in their production of language, they become ready to answer wh- questions, which require the students to create, phrases or sentences.
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Treatment of Errors
Errors are inevitable in a classroom of English learners, and the approach the teacher takes toward the errors of the students can greatly effect the affective filter individuals. In the early stages of language development, communication is more important than fluency. Teacher should not directly correct an error, but model the correct form of language in the response. Syntax errors are common with English learners, for example a student might produce the following language: “Bathroom go?” The teacher can model the correct syntax by replying: “Yes, you may go to the bathroom (with emphasis on go to the bathroom).”
Teachers
must constantly monitor the errors of his/her students and classify each error
into one of the following two groups: systemic errors or random errors. System errors are those that occur with
regularity. These errors must be
addressed through instruction to the individual student or the class as a
whole. Random errors are those caused by
inattention, lapse of memory or inadequate rules acquisition.
Total Physical Response (TPR) is based on
the premise that second language learners acquire language in the same manner
they acquired their primary language.
TPR is based on the following three principals: listening precedes
speaking, understanding is developed through moving the body, and speaking is
never forced. In TPR, the teacher gives
instructions to the students while modeling the desired behavior, such as stand
or sit. After multiple examples of
listening and observing the modeling, the students are given an opportunity to
demonstrate understanding with only the command.
Strategies for students with low English Proficiency
1. Control speech
·
Slow speech
·
Enunciate
clearly
·
Emphasize key
words and phrases
2. Use context clues
·
Visuals of
all kinds
3. Clarify
·
Demonstrate
·
Expand
·
Repeat
4. Avoid forced speech
5.
Non-verbal
communication
6.
Reinforce
concepts over and over
7.
Establish
consistent patterns and routines
8.
Wait time
9.
Make
correction indirectly
10. Summarize and review
11.
Check for understanding
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Diaz-Rico, Lynne T. and Weed,
Kathryn Z. The Crosscultural, Language, and Academic Development Handbook.
Gallizzi,
Roger.