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Islamic Modernism in the Views of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Allama Iqbal: A Comparative Study
Assistant Professor of Philosophy University of Chittagong
Abstract: The main tension among the Muslim intellectual community in this twenty-first century is their seemingly contradictory affiliation both with (1) the Islamic 'dogmatic' beliefs and social identity, (2) with the modern science and technologies which made their life comfortable for living (3) and liberal westurn cultural flow. In this paper, we shall try to focus on the views of Islamic modernist thought of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and Allama Iqbal. The apologetic trend in Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan's thought is responsible for portrating Islamic modernism objectionable to the greater Muslim community. In the continuation of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Allama Iqbal developed a trend of modernist thought, which we have called as Islamic neo-modernism. In our consideration, at this point Iqbal is neither a fanatic fundamentalist, nor a theological conservative. Instead, it appears that he has successfully built a bridge between these two, which nourished a modern scientific outlook in Islamic milieu.
Introduction: Modernism as defined by G. Tyrell, one of its principal exponents as 'the desire and effort to find a new theological synthesis, consistent with the data of historical research' (Girling, p.348). The most significant characteristics of the modernist movement of the eighteenth century western world are two (Girling, p.348): 1. "A new apologetic in which the traditional scholastic method should be abandoned and the cardinal points of Christian faith established through a modern evolutionary and dynamic theory of the universe. 2. Historical criticism which set out to distinguish between the spirit and form of dogmatic formula and to reconcile the truth value of dogma with its historical development."
The word 'liberalism' is more conveniently used to describe similar movements in Protestantism (as 'modernism'). The modernist movement in the Roman Church began in 1890 (Chamber's Encyclopaedia, p.450). With the accession of Pope Pius X in 1903, a requirement was imposed in 1910 that all clerics have to take anti modernist oath known as Sacrorum Antistitum. It marked the end of uprising of the movement as such, although its spirit persisted and prospered (Edwards, p.359).
Islamic modernism- Islamic modernism in the Indian Sub-continent in the 19th century is a simple continuation of the Islamic reform movements carried out by the great reformists such as Shah Walliullah of Delhi and Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan. In the pre-modernist reform movements, emphasis was placed more towards the positive issues of the society, in political, moral and spiritual. The transition from pre-modernist trend to modernism was marked by its positive approach of Islamic reform in the social contents of Islam. The most important modernist thinkers like Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Mufti Mohammad Abduhu and Sayyid Amir Ali have come from, we know, more or less a purificationist-reformist background. They have approached the problem of the relationship between faith and reason in Islamic Philosophico-theological thinking with a new scientific outlook which was then emerging and vigorously claiming for recognition.
Modernist Views of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan: Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan was the first important modernist among the Indian Muslims (Fakhry, p.347). Shah Waliullah had a considerable influence on Sir Sayyid Ahmed's primary inspiration of speculative thought. He accepted Shah Waliullah's fundamental teachings of Ijtihad but failed to determine clearly its limit. Rational supernaturalism: In his apologetic approach of 'rational supernaturalism' (Baljon, p.135) Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan said, "It is my duty to defend as much as I can the religion of Islam, right or wrong, and to reveal to the people, the original bright face of Islam" (Baljon, p.135). In the preface to his first important apologetic writing: A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad (1870), Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan explicitly declared that this work was especially intended for the use of those Muhammadan youths who are pursuing their English studies (Baljon, p.138) Sayyid Ahmed Khan's most prominent theory is his proposal to test the religious truths by science. According to him, revelation and nature both has come from the same source, i.e., God. So, these two must be consistent and can be verified by one another, especially religion by science. Hadis: In this connection it is notable that he has radically modified the traditional sources of Islamic legal frame. The great classical Hadis collections, to him, are historical reflections of the ideas and attitudes of the first few generations of Muslims. "Sayyid Ahmed Khan most probably aided by his colleague, Maulavi Chiragh Ali, rejects all Hadith" (Smith, p.18). Ijma: as a source of Islam has neither validity nor a new interpretation to him. In his concept of natural morality he discarded the supernatural elements as being superficial and he bases his arguments on the unambiguous verses of the Quranic text, especially the Meccan Surahs (Fakhry, p.348). He seems to espouse Unitarian deism closely related to the spirit of the medieval Muslim Philosophers as well as the nineteenth century scientific trends of mechanical viewpoint of life and world. On this ground he categorically rejects the possibility of miracles even for the Prophet himself. He seems to follow the dogmatic attitude in his rationalism. To him, the essence of religion is (scientific) truth, not blind faith. Faith is the essence of religion. To him, social morality is based on natural laws which he identified with wahy. Principles of Exegesis: He introduces his own principles of exegesis (Ahmed, p.45). In his principle of exegesis he denies the principle of nask. Nask means the nask of other religion before Islam. He ascribes angles as the 'properties' of created things, satan as the dark passions of man, the idea of jinn as merely an animistic folklore. Social Reforms: In his social reforms, Sayyid Ahmed Khan apologetically interpreted the traditional Islamic institutions like jihad, polygamy, slavery and interest of loan (riba). He considered jihad as only valid for defense of the Muslim community; polygamy & slavery as being inherently prohibited in the Quran though the Muslim jurists permitted it in their legal theory. According to him, riba is prohibited only if it is in the compound form. Infact, Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan intended for social, economic and cultural upliftment of his co-religionists. He opined that the more worldly progress we make the more glory of Islam we will be able to cover.
Neo-modernism of Allama Iqbal: The significance Allama Iqbal's Islamic modernism what we shall call as neo-modernism, is a dynamic worldview and an activist reinterpretation of the religion of Islam in the twentieth century perspective. To him, man himself and his world both are by nature free for creative movement. Progressive Trends: K.G. Saiyidain identifies progressive trends in Iqbal's neo-modernism with the following three points: i) A faith in the ultimate goodness of human nature and the consequent belief that life is worth living, ii) An active identification of the self with the causes of social justice iii) and a willingness to strive for them to the best of one's ability (Saiyidian, pp.50-51). Human' Potentiality: The most optimistic view of Iqbal about the 'human' potentiality has come forth in him in a very close relation of man and God as man to be the vicegerent of God on the word. In his neo-modernism he has significantly attempted to overcome the shortcomings of modern reform trends by introducing a worldly religion in interpretation of Islam that bases on spiritualism. Khudi: He was well educated in the than 'contemporary' trends of Western Philosophical developments. It will not be just to say that he endeavored for a synthesis between speculative thoughts of the West and the religion of Islam. Instead, he introduced his own 'thought-structure' in his theory of ego (Khudi). To him, man is not only free to make choice and act accordingly; he has also the power to create himself, his world and the future that is yet to explore. Besides, the Supremacy and Omnipotence of God, man too is glorified to be co-creator if he is consciously determined to achieve the chance by utilizing his inherent powers to dominate over the world and to attain the divine pleasure as much as to be. The most important thing in Allama Iqbal's neo-modernism of Islam is the refutation of the transcendental idea of God. "Iqbal's God is in this very world, now, with us, facing our problems from within, creating a new and better world with us and through us" (Smith, p.18). Worldly Religion: To him, human life is worthwhile only in the religion of Islam. One's religious worthy life is obviously including and on basis of this worldly life. The after life is only its necessary continuation. Life is considered by him as an organic whole and the most important and determining portion is 'this-world', not the 'other-world'. Immortality, in the neo-modernistic approach of Iqbal, is not an inborn quality of the human soul as traditional theologians interpret it; but to achieve through proper self-awareness, great zeal and systematic effort which can be materialized in a proper social life. In an empirical worldview, he asserts that reason and intuition are complementary rather than opposed. According to him, 'men of faith' have to acquire the creative faculty of soul by what he says intuitional reason which comprise both the instincts of animal and the extraordinary reason of man. This is the 'third path' of Iqbal in Bergsonian theory of creative evolution. Mysticism: Iqbal's idea of mysticism is of immense important. He holds that Mysticism is a valid discipline for the cognition of reality though its process of operation is entirely different from that of the traditional forms of empiricism or rationalism. Ijtihad: Ijtihad has a key role in the speculative neo-modernism of Sir Mohammad Iqbal. Like any other reformist he also advocates for the utmost necessity of keeping the door of ijtihad open for all the Muslims for all the time. It is the heart of ideal life of a faithful man. In other words, ijtihad is the gateway of Iqbal's neo-modernism. According to him, Muslim law can be subject to moderation from time to time with the unalterable cores of legal codes of Islam, which are obviously ethical and universal in nature. Ijma: With Quran, Hadith and Qiyas (legal syllogism) as the dependable sources of Islamic knowledge, Allama Iqbal proposes Ijma too as a valid criteria in the matters of Islam but with a new interpretation. In his neo-modernism, ijma is referred to the parliamentary system. Social development and pragmatic state-policies will be realized through the parliament providing it will be constituted with satisfactory number of qualified religious experts (Ulema).
Few Outlines of Differences between the Modernism of Allama Iqbal and Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan:
'Fall of Adam': In the most dynamic worldview of Allama Iqbal, Islamic modernism has come to a new phase what we call, neo-modernism which is verily absent in Sayyid Ahmed Khan. Sayyid Ahmed Khan's scientific views were generated from mechanical concepts of his time. He was highly impressed by Darwinian theory of evolution; whereas, Iqbal attempted to reconstruct Bergsonian theory of creative evolution. When Sayyid Ahmed Khan attempts to portrait the Islamic dogma of 'fall of Adam' described in the Quran as a myth; it is Dr. Muhammad Iqbal who most daringly recognizes it as "the first rung in the ladder of man's glory" (Smith, p.121) by making a choice, though wrong. Activist Religion: Allama Iqbal intend to establish religion in life as an undivided whole, Sayyid Ahmed attempts to size up the matters of religion with his dogma of scientific rationalism to an unlimited extent. Iqbal is in favor of religion to use it in full extent by introducing an activist religion in his philosophy of the self (Khudi). Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan has considered God as transcendent as usual; whereas God is very much nearer in Iqbal's sketch. Actually, Iqbal's God is a personal God, 'co-worker' of man. As a result he (Iqbal) do not stand against ahadis, not in need to introduce a new system of exegesis in intention to degrade the pragmatic aspects of religion of Islam. Unlike Sayyid Ahmed Khan, Iqbal professes the new interpretation as well as implication of ijma in a balanced parliamentary system. Iqbal is not attempting to look at the East in the eye of the West, nor is he interested for a synthesis of Western technology with eastern norms and spirituality. He has used the western approaches, terms and findings; but with thorough moderation of his unique manner of 'thought structure'. Apologetic Trend: Unlike many other modernists, especially Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, he (Iqbal) is not an apologist. He is the first modernist to interpret Islam in modern terms without more or less up-rooting its historical and textual dimensions and traditions. Most of the modernists, even in this twenty first century too, obviously Sir Sayyid Ahmed also, commit a serious mistake to try to establish that Islamic tenets are fully consistent and therefore verifiable by the scientific discoveries. Iqbal most carefully escapes from such an over simplified and misleading equation. Epistemological Basis: Iqbal is unhesitating to welcome the empirical findings of Science. He gives well recognition to the rational speculations. But, he is not contended to be confined in scientific empiricism or speculative rationalism, or with the both. His epistemological scheme includes intuition as the higher degree of perfection. This kind of consistent epistemological basis is absent it the modernist thinking of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan. In fact, it is only Allama Iqbal who is the right continuation and proper development of Islamic Philosophical traditions and a great contributor to the world thinking of the twentieth century. Bridging between the East and West: Iqbal is successful to maintain both the 'East' and the 'West', without any direct or indirect apology. Where as in the unbounded rationalism of Sir Sayyid Ahmed and many of his followers, neither Islam, nor the Europe is managed well and honestly. As a result, not only the theologians, the general Muslims too, became antagonistic or at least suspicious about modernism. Consequently in later, fundamentalism in its aggressive form emerged among the educated Muslims in the Muslim majority portions of the Indian sub-continent. Balance Islam: Unlike Dr. Iqbal, Sir Sayyid ignores mysticism. Islam, as we know it, without spiritualism is not complete and true interpretation. In approach, Islam is social though it's objective is personal (salvation). In his Islamic neo-modernism, it maintains both. He is successful to maintain the 'balanced Islam' in the twentieth perspective comprising the traditional sources of Islam, Suphism and 'Hikma' altogether. The only apology remains for Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan is that his modernism and concerning 'theories' and appeals were just for the than Indian Muslim bourgeois. His modernism lacks necessarily the philosophical depth that is extraordinarily used and deeply grounded in Iqbal. Iqbal have thoroughly studied western philosophy academically. He was not just a royal visitor in Europe. Nor, he was primarily opposed to western matters. He has the most neutral attitude towards the west. Muslim Separatism: In his political thinking, Iqbal preferred socialism in humanitarian ground. Whereas Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan never seriously stood against European capitalism and British imperialism of the nineteenth century. Here is a point to note that, the idea of Muslim separatism in the colonial India was first initiated by 'loyal Muhammadan' Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, which was strongly promoted by Sir Muhammad Iqbal in continuation.
Conclusion: We know, the apological-approach of Sir Sayyid has its root in the unfortunate failure of "1857's Mutiny". He just, as it seems to us, aimed at saving the Muslim community from a total destruction in social, political, economic and intellectual conditions. This is the cause of popularity of his educational scheme and political thought in a situation of refutation of his speculative modernism by the larger Muslim community. Somehow, for the part of Allama Iqbal, the author considers a comment of W.C. Smith as appropriate that any modern Muslim who would talk about religion must begin where Iqbal left off; otherwise, he is hardly worth listening to (Smith, p.127). Actually, the Islamic modernism, initiated by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan with the honest intention to save the Muslim community of the colonial India, had its necessary and excellent development in Allama Iqbal.
References:
Ahmed, Aziz Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, (Oxford University Press, 1967) Baljon, J.M.S. The Reforms and Religious Ideas of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, 3rd ed. (Lahore: Sh. Mohammad Ashraf, 1964)
Chamber's Encyclopaedia, V-9, (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967) Edwards, Paul (ed.) The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy V-5&6, (New York: The Macmillan Company & The Free Press, 1967) Fakhry, Majid A History of Islamic Philosophy 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983) Girling, D.A., (ed.) Everyone's Encyclopaedia V-8, 6th ed., (London: J. M. Dant & Sons Ltd., 1978) Smith, W.C. Modern Islam in India, (New Delhi: Usha Publications, 1946) Saiyidian, K.G., Iqbal as a Thinker (Lahore: Sh. Mohammad Ashraf, 1966)
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