Week 11/12 - Ptolemaic/Seleucid decadence and the Roman Conquest
Readings: Walbank, p.198-208; 227-251.
The Roman conquest
The Macedonian wars
In Macedonia ruled the Antigonid dynasty.
Difficult task of trying to maintain hegemony over the city states of the mainland.
These city states continued to be just as jealous of their autonomy as they had been in the Hellenic period.
Crucial to Macedonian control of Greece was their garrisons in three towns which kept open the invasion route from Macedonia into southern Greece: Demetrias in Thrace, Chalcis on the island of Euboea and the Acrocorinth (the citadel of Corinth).
Known as the "three shackles" of Greece.
Roman attitudes toward the Greek world
In 200, Romans had been under indirect Greek cultural influence for centuries.
Latin literature had been developing in imitation of Greek for about 40 years.
This sense of cultural admiration alone was enough for the Romans to adopt a very delicate attitude toward the Greek states.
Furthermore, to avoid committing vast numbers of troops to the conquest and direct rule of the area, the Romans would have to act in co-operation with some of the Greeks.
Necessity of careful cultivation of Greek public opinion.
Reason for the war with Philip V
Why exactly the Romans decided to declare war on Philip is not entirely clear.
19th century: it was thought that the Romans were justifiably angered at him for his "stab in the back" (alliance of Hannibal and Philip V).
This resulted in the First Macedonian War.
It was also thought that this was another "defensive" war, in that he threatened the Roman "protectorate" in Illyria.
Yet another explanation is Philhellenism ("the love of Greece").
But this interpretation may be the result of Roman propaganda in Greece.
Another possibility: the Roman magistrates were concocting a war for their own benefit.
Start of the 2nd Macedonian War
In 201 Philip was at war with Pergamum, Rhodes and Athens.
An embassy arrived from the three communities in Rome, complaining of Philip's aggression and seeking Roman assistance.
Clearly, the Greek states were trying to get Rome involved for their own purposes.
Envoys were sent east to demand that Philip stop waging war on the Greeks and make reparations to Attalus, the king of Pergamum.
The people did not agree immediately to declare war (weariness of most people after two decades of war with Hannibal).
Early Campaigning
200: Galba (Roman general) raided the Macedonian border area, gaining plunder and allies among the neighboring kinglets.
He did not accomplishing much but getting lots of plunder, and inflicted a slight defeat on Philip.
The Aetolians (Romes allies) sufficiently encouraged to declare war on Philip, while the Achaean League (previously an ally of Philip) refused to get involved.
Flamininus
In 198, a new consul received Macedonia: T. Quinctius Flamininus (young & energic).
His appointment represented a change in Roman position.
He negotiated with Philip, who offered to give up his conquests from right before the war and to pay reparations.
Flamininus now told him that he had to evacuate all of Greece (including Thessaly, which had been a part of Macedonia for 150 years).
Philip's military failure plus the propaganda value of Rome's new championing of Greek freedom made most of Greece go over to Rome in 198.
Especially important was the defection of the Achaean League.
Cynoscephalae
197 Flamininus and Philip joined battle at Cynoscephalae.
The rough ground favored the looser Roman formation, and Philip's army was massacred.
Philip now sued for peace, and had to agree to whatever the Romans wanted.
Their Aetolian allies frustrated: The towns that had voluntarily surrendered were now considered to be in Rome's control instead of Aetolians.
Flamininus also refused the Aetolian demand that Philip be deposed (they wished Philip to remain as a counterbalance to Antiochus III).
Macedonia also served as a bulwark against the tribes to the north.
Philips surrender
Philip offered to evacuate all Greece including the shackles.
Flamininus accepted, collecting a small initial indemnity of 200 talents.
Decree of the Roman senate:
All Greek towns in Europe and Asia not garrisoned by him were to be free.
He was also to pay 1,000 talents, half immediately, the rest in ten installments.
Particularly noteworthy is the inclusion of Asian Greek towns (aimed at Antiochus's position in Asia Minor).
In 196, Antiochus III had crossed over to Europe, rebuilding the town of Lysimachia in Thrace.
The Freedom Of Greece
The Aetolians claimed that only the Greek cities of Asia were really free and that the Romans would keep key positions, especially the shackles, for themselves.
Flamininus, however, successfully argued that Rome should not retain any permanent positions in mainland Greece.
For the next two years Flamininus and the legates worked out the details of making the new arrangements for the settlement, especially the creation of new leagues.
Why did the Romans act this way?
To annoy the Aetolians and to win great support for Rome in preparation for a showdown with Antiochus.
By letting the Greeks have their freedom, the Romans could win their favor without the trouble of constant supervision.
But the Roman conception of freedom was different from that of the Greeks .
Syrian War
Antiochus The Great
See notes on the Seleucids.
Antiochus was defeated. Terms of his surrender:
evacuation of Asia Minor north and west of the Taurus Mts.
an indemnity of 15,000 talents
hand over Hannibal
make small restitution to Pergamum.
Settlement
The difficult question had been what to do with the Asia cities?
The Romans did not want to govern the area themselves.
They first divided Asia Minor into Greek and non-Greek areas.
Of the non- Greeks, those north of the river Meander were to go to Eumenes, those south to Rhodes.
The Greek towns were divided into two categories.
Those that had gone over to Rome before the battle of Magnesia, and them alone would be free.
The rest would be given to Eumenes or Rhodes.
Third Macedonian War
Change in Roman attitudes
Hardening of Roman attitude toward the Greeks as Roman military superiority became more apparent.
Continual involvement in Greek policy engendered greed in members of the Roman senatorial class.
An early example of this: their treatment of the Aetolians in the Syrian War.
Aetolia
In 191 the Romans turned their attention to the Aetolians after defeating their ally Antiochus at Thermopylae.
The Aetolians quickly realized that resistance was pointless and sought an interview with the consul.
He told them to meet with his subordinate, to show them how insignificant they were.
They decided to entrust themselves to the "good faith of the Roman People," not fully understanding what that act meant.
Deditio in fidem populi Romani
In fact, the Latin expression deditio in fidem populi Romani ("handing over [of oneself] to the good faith of the Roman People") signified complete and unconditional surrender to the good faith of the Romans.
A people that had performed a deditio became completely subordinated to the will of the Roman People.
After the Aetolians surrendered, the Roman consul made a number of demands on them.
They objected, saying the demands were unjust, and the consul made it brutally clear to the Aetolians what the situation was.
War again for Aetolia
Understanding the real meaning of the deditio, the Aetolians refused to submit to the Romans.
In 189 the Romans marched against Aetolia, and now they surrendered.
Forced to pay 500 talents.
Restrictions on the composition of the league.
They had to keep the same friends and enemies as the Roman People.
They had to "preserve the empire and sovereignty of the Roman People without deceit."
They were to subordinate their own interests completely to those of the Romans.
Rhodes
Romans ungrateful to their allies and jealous of their remaining power.
When they granted the area of Asia Minor called Lycia to Rhodes, the Lycians refused to be controlled by the Rhodians and a major war ensued.
By 178 the Rhodians had won, but senate thereby rendered all the Rhodians' efforts pointless by saying said that the Lycians were not in fact to be subjects but only allies of the Rhodians.
Macedonia
Later relations of Philip of Macedonia with the Romans were poor.
They constantly interfered in the 180s with his position on the Thracian coast and in Thessaly.
They also tried to use against him his younger son Demetrius.
In 179 Philip died and was succeeded by his son Perseus.
Perseus was the anti-Roman candidate for the throne and he did a number of things that made him suspect to the Romans.
Marriage alliance with the Seleucids.
Implementation of a debt relief in Macedonia which increased his popularity.
He contravened the general policy that Macedonia should remain within its traditional frontiers.
Outbreak of war
In 172 Rome's friend Eumenes king of Pergamum came to Rome, making all manner of accusations against Perseus and putting all his actions in the worst possible light.
Romans looked for an excuse to start war, and had no intention of negotiating in good faith.
They were simply stalling to allow themselves to gain time over Perseus.
The consul then went on to destroy the Boeotian League, which had a strong democratic element and was hence unreliable from a Roman point of view.
War
War was finally declared in the spring of 171.
The consul was worsted in a minor battle: he blamed Aetolians and arrested five leaders.
Now it was a crime simply not to show enough enthusiasm.
The Romans exaggeratedly plundered the Greek cities (including allies).
The Greek towns sent embassies to complain to the senate.
But clearly the magistrates in Greece were out of control, and the senate unable to keep a rein on them.
Finally, in 168, the Macedonians were completely defeated.
Settlement
Following their decisively victory, the Romans were still unwilling to establish a permanent presence there.
They abolished the kingdom, and divided it into four republics (but denied them trade and alliance with each other).
The Romans also closed the royal gold and silver mines.
They encouraged purges of anti-Roman Greeks among their allies.
Many were deported to Italy (including Polybius).
Perseus was humiliated by being paraded in Paullus's triumph.
Destruction of Epirus
The plunder made from conquering Macedonia was immense, but insufficient to satisfy the avarice of the consul Paullus.
Later he considered that Epirus, some of whose leaders had foolishly espoused Perseus' cause, should serve as plunder.
150,000 people were enslaved through an act of treachery.
Final Settlement of Greece
Rhodes after the
Third Macedonian War
In the aftermath of the Third Macedonian War, action was taken against the island of Rhodes.
As a major naval power, Rhodes had felt threatened by the Hellenistic kingdoms and was an early supporter of Rome.
But the humiliating treatment shown Rhodes during the 170s had led a faction less favorable to the Romans to take control of the government.
Their intercession with Perseus for a negotiated peace was negatively interpreted by the Senate.
End of friendship between Rome and Rhodes.
The senate took measures that severely undermined the position of Rhodes.
The port of Delos
The senate removed Lycia and Caria from Rhodian control and granted freedom to two Carian towns that had belonged to Rhodes before the Roman grant in 188.
Rome had no justification to do this, but Rhodian refusal to comply would have meant war.
This alone cost the Rhodians an income of 120 talents per year.
Far worse: Rome gave Delos to Athens, to become a free port (free of duties).
Not only did this mean the direct loss of another 140 talents from lost duties for Rome.
In 164: restoration of friendship between Romans & Rhodians (but "unequal" alliance).
Rhodes' status as a major naval power broken.
Rome could no longer be viewed as the philhellenic champion of Greek liberty.
Macedonian uprising & Achaean War
The Romans' artificial creation of four separate republics: a failure.
No republican tradition, genuine fondness for the Macedonian kingdom.
Someone claimed to be the son of Perseus, and seized control of the old kingdom.
Beginning of a revolt against the Romans.
At the same time, the Achean League revolted, because of the desire of Sparta to secede from the Achaean League.
Facing anti-Roman sentiments, the senate's decision was harsh.
Sparta was detached from the league, and also Corinth, Argos and other towns that had not asked to secede.
In 146 the Achaean League refused to comply with the senate's decision and declared war on Sparta (same as declaring war on Rome).
The Romans routed the Macedonian and Achaean forces, and captured the city of Corinth.
Settlement of Greece
Corinth was razed to the ground (permanent example to the Greeks of the meaning of continued opposition).
It was decided to create a permanent province in Macedonia.
South Greece now known as Achaea, ruled by the governer of Macedonia.
Development of the Roman position in Greece
At first, in 200, the war motive seems to have been little more than a desire on the part of the magistrates to acquire glory and money from war.
Romans initially posed as the defenders of Greek freedom.
Goal: to gain and keep support in their wars against the Hellenistic monarchs.
As the military superiority of the Romans became evident, two processes went on.
1st: the maintenance of their position necessitated increasing direct Roman interference.
Their reluctance to make clear what exactly their position was led to a fair amount of resentment on the part of the Greeks.
2nd: once Rome had the dominant position, the Roman senate and magistrates came to be more and more imperious in their dealings with the Greeks.
Policy of humbling any Greek power that continued to have any prominence (e.g. Macedonia and Rhodes).
Ultimately, need of a permanent Roman presence in Macedonia.
Mithridatic War
Pontus is the mountainous area of northeastern Asia Minor.
Hellenized kingdom, with a new king in 121/0 BC: Mithridates VI Eupator.
Extremely energetic and competent ruler who caused the Romans many years of trouble.
He established his control of the Greek colonies on the Crimean peninsula (southern Ukraine).
He also took over the western Caucasus (modern Georgia and Armenia).
Rome in Asia Minor
In the 90s, Mithridates wished to expand in Asia Minor.
With Bithynia (Romes ally) he disputed parts of Phrygia.
He also tried to take over Cappadocia.
For two decades, Mithridates will be a constant source of trouble for the Romans in Asia Minor.
In the late 70s: important events went on in the east.
Romes inheritance of Bithynia and Cyrenaica, War with Mithridates
Rome's Position in the East
Roman control of Bithynia in 74 changed the situation in Asia Minor.
Increase the area of direct Roman rule, and new war with Mithridates.
Within a decade the entire situation of the Near East would change.
Rome's territorial control and military obligations greatly increased.
Mithridates defeated by Pompey.
Pompeys established a permanent Roman presence in the Near East.
Tigranes, king of Armenia, became a client king (owed his crown to the Roman People and could be replaced at their will).
Pompey made the Caucasus territories subordinate to Rome.
He also established permanent relations with a number of local dynasts in eastern Asia Minor (client kings).
Annexation of Syria (end of the Seleucids)
Importance of Pompey's settlement
The areas conquered by Pompey were very wealthy, doubling the income of the Roman state.
Pompey basically established where the eastern limit of Roman expansion would lie.
The Euphrates became the eastern border for the next two centuries.
Now the Romans directly responsible for all of Asia Minor.
Complicated system of subordinate kingdoms in the interior and west.
Control of northern Syria.
Civil war in Rome
Roman control of the Mediterranean sea almost complete in the East, except for Egypt.
But important troubles in Rome.
Alliance of Pompey, Caesar & Crassus fragilized by the death of the latter.
Pompey and Caesar would become strong rivals.
This rivalry degenerated in a civil war.
Caesar finally vanquished near Pharsalus in 48.
Egypt
Pompey decided to flee in Egypt, ruled by Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra VII.
Murdered by Ptolemys men.
Caesar occupied Asia, then he headed for Egypt.
He quickly fell in love with Cleopatra and became embroiled in dynastic squabbles (Alexandrian war).
Finally able to defeat his enemies (death of Ptolemy).
Caesar now made Cleopatra queen with her younger brother (Ptolemy XIV, later murdered in 44 by Cleopatra).
Death of Caesar
After that Caesar quicly intervened against Pharnaces in Asia Minor (veni vidi vici).
After that, Caesar ruled over Rome as a dictator, bringing peace for a short time.
But in March 44, he was assassinated by senator who wanted to restore the Republic.
Result: after the death of Caesars murderer (battle Philipi, in Macedonia in 42 BC), Rome is ruled by Octavian (West) and Mark Antony (East).
Reorganization of the East
After Philippi, Antony assumed the task of subduing the eastern areas that had been under the control of the Republicans (Caesars murderers).
War against the Parthians.
Many kings showed themselves to be disloyal or incompetent.
Antony carried out a general reorganization in the interest of four major kings.
Division of western Asia Minor between the kings of Cappadocia and Galatia.
Southern Syria left in the control of Herod.
Cleopatra
He had met her in 41 and by him she had twins (a son and a daughter).
He strengthened the Egyptian kingdom by giving Cleopatra control of certain areas in southern Syria, a town in Cilicia and the island of Cyprus.
These territories had belonged to the Ptolemaic dynasty in the past.
Octavians propaganda exaggerated the meaning of these gifts and the power of Cleopatra over Antony.
But Antony neglected and humiliated his wife Octavia (Octavians sister).
Parthian disaster
A new king, Phraates, seized the Parthian throne after murdering his father.
Antony considered this an opportune time to invade the country.
In 36 he invaded Parthia, but finally was forced to withdraw (effective leader notheless).
The next year (35) he invaded Armenia.
Death of Sextus Pompey: only two military leaders left in the Roman world, Octavian and Mark Antony.
Actium
On September 31, Antony's ships by Octavian's fleet, which was commanded by Agrippa.
Cleopatra kept her ships in reserve and fled at the first occasion (probably not a betrayal).
Battle of Actium not itself have been a major military engagement, but politically decisive.
Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide the year after.
Octavian conquered Egypt.
Caesarion was killed.
Octavian was now the undisputed ruler of the Roman world and the last of the three Hellenistic dynasties was now completely annihilated.
This marks the end of the Hellenistic period.