Readings: Walbank, p. 100-122; Austin, chapter 7.
· 332 BC: Alexander the Great invaded Egypt.
· Welcomed by the Egyptians as a liberator (Egypt was under Persian control).
· Journey to Siwa Oasis (Oracle of Amon).
· Maybe a coronation at the Egyptian capital (Memphis): tradition of the pharaohs.
· 323: Alexander died and his generals divided his empire.
· Position of satrap claimed by Ptolemy, son of Lagus (hence the “dynasty of Lagids”).
· Perdiccas, the regent, might have regretted his failure to take Egypt for himself.
· He marched from Asia Minor to wrest Egypt from Ptolemy in 321 BC.
· He failed (murdered by his own generals).
· Under the Ptolemies, Alexandria became the cultural and economic center of the ancient world.
· Egypt ruled from Alexandria by Ptolemy's descendants until the death of Cleopatra VII (30 BC).
· The early Ptolemies raised the quality of Egyptian agriculture (irrigation, new kinds of crops).
· They increased the wealth of their population by increasing foreign trade.
· In return, the Ptolemies became extremely rich and absorbed Egyptian culture.
· They adopted Egyptian royal trappings.
· They added Egypt's religion to their own.
· This is the real secret to Ptolemy's rule.
· The place of Egypt in the Hellenistic world
· The wealthiest Hellenistic kingdom.
· The most powerful politically and culturally.
· The last to fall directly under Roman dominion.
· Ptolemaic monarchy set a style for other Hellenistic kingdoms.
· Generalization of the names Ptolemy, Cleopatra and Berenice.
· The Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters (who ruled jointly with their spouses).
· It made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous…
· The early Ptolemies were wise rulers:
· They did not disturb the local religion or customs,
· built new temples for the Egyptian gods.
· and adopted the outward display of the Pharaohs.
· Ptolemies II and III: grants of farm lands to thousands of veterans.
· Greeks planted in colonies and garrisons throughout the country.
· Greek influence spread through the country.
· Intermarriage: large Greco-Egyptian educated class.
· But Greeks remained a privileged minority.
Austin # 271: The Egyptian priest honor Ptolemy III and Berenice.
Austin # 291: about the decline of the Ptolemies.
· The first 160 years of the Ptolemaic dynasty: its most prosperous era.
· Administration and economy: thorough reorganization under the two first Ptolemies.
· A complete census of the kingdom recorded:
o the sources of water;
o the position, quality, and irrigation potential of the land;
o the state of cultivation;
o the crops grown;
o and the extent of priestly and royal landholdings.
· Important agricultural innovations in this period.
Austin # 254: about Ptolemy II Philadelphus
· Macedonian-Greek character of the monarchy preserved (and well symbolized by Alexandria)
· It became a racial melting pot, home of a new age in Greek science and art.
· Ptolemy I Soter was not only a general but also an intellectual, like his son and grandson (enlightened rulers).
· Ptolemy I invited scholars and artists from all over the known world to come to Alexandria.
· This resulted in some of the most famous images of Alexandria: the Museum & the Library.
· Alexandria: the most important city in the eastern Mediterranean for many centuries.
· Quickly the royal capital was transferred from Memphis to Alexandria.
· Nile valley formed a natural unit.
· But at first the Ptolemies harboured imperial ambitions.
· Ptolemy I won control of Cyprus and Cyrene and quarreled with his neighbor over control of Palestine.
· 3rd century: powerful Ptolemaic empire, including:
o the Levant,
o many cities of Asia Minor,
o some Aegean islands,
o some towns in Thrace,
o Cyprus and Cyrene.
· But their influence will progressively decrease.
· Continual fights with the Seleucids over Coele-Syria.
· After the battle of Panion in 200, it passed to Seleucid control.
· In 168: Antiochus IV’ successful invasion of Egypt halted by Roman intervention.
Austin # 259: About Ptolemy II’s sovereignty over Miletus.
Austin # 285: A Ptolemaic governor in Cyprus.
Austin # 268: The Third Syrian War (under Ptolemy III).
Austin # 273: Mercenaries in Ptolemaic service in Syria (3rd century).
Austin # 275: The Fourth Syrian War (219/218)
· Main problem: administrative control and relations with the native Egyptians.
· In the south: doubtful loyalty of the Thebaid (permanent threat to the unity of Upper and Lower Egypt).
· Revolts from 206 to 186 (rebel kings) and from 88 to 86.
· Ptolemy IX brought relative peace to the south with the destruction of Thebes.
· This situation in Upper Egypt contrasts with the royal cooperation with the high priests of Memphis (Lower Egypt).
· From the reign of Ptolemy V, the king was crowned there as a pharaoh.
Austin # 277: Revolts in Egypt.
Austin # 286: Disturbances in Upper Egypt.
· Big changes brought by the Ptolemies.
· Administration of resources: Unparalleled efficiency.
· Egypt became the wealthiest of the Hellenistic kingdoms.
· Land under cultivation increased, new crops introduced.
· Impressive growth of the population (partly because of Greek and Jewish immigration).
· The flow seems to have decreased later in the 1st century BC (decline of prosperity?).
· But not under Cleopatra VII.
Austin # 260: ordinances over people and land.
Austin # 261: The Ptolemies and the Jews.
· Governmental system devised to exploit the country's economic resources.
· Directly below the monarch: a few powerful officials whose competence extended over the entire land.
· Backed by a pyramidal class of subordinate officials with competence in limited areas.
· They administrated the 30 (or so) nomes of Egypt: long-established geographic divisions.
· The military integrated into civilian life.
· Soldiers were also farmers:
o as Greek cleruchs (holders of allotments) with higher status and generous grants,
o or as native Egypt machimoi with small plots.
· The Greek speakers were favorised (elite).
· (Hellenized) Egyptians nevertheless able to gradually infiltrate to the highest levels.
· Highly productive land, which technically remained in royal ownership.
· But a considerable portion kept under the control of temples.
· The remainder leased out to tenant-farmers.
· A portion granted as gifts to leading courtiers.
· The revenues in cash and kind were enormous.
· Royal control extended to the manufacture and marketing of almost all important products (papyrus, oil, linen, and beer).
· Mixture of:
o direct royal ownership
o and exploitation by private enterprise under regulated conditions.
Austin # 297: the oil monopoly of Ptolemy II Philadelphus.
Austin # 299: The gold coinage of Ptolemy II.
· The monarchy operated a closed monetary system, which permitted only the royal coinage to circulate within Egypt.
· Mixture of direct royal control and private enterprise, handling both royal and private financial transactions.
· Enormous increase in the volume of trade, both within Egypt and abroad.
· Alexandria: major port and trading center.
· Export of luxury goods to and from the East and the cities of the eastern Mediterranean.
Austin # 299: The gold coinage of Ptolemy II.
Austin #298: Valuation of goods imported to Egypt by a magistrate.
· Ptolemies, powerful supporters of the native Egyptian religious foundations.
· However, careful control of the economic and political power of traditional religion.
· Building and restoration of the most important Egyptian temples.
· The Greeks identified:
o Amon with Zeus,
o Horus with Apollo,
o Ptah with Hephaestus (etc).
· They also gave to Isis a more universal significance (he cult spread throughout the Mediterranean world).
· Impact of the Greeks in two phenomena.
o Ruler-cult (political and religious purpose).
o Creation of the cult of Serapis (soon became universal).
Austin # 300: the introduction of Serapis to Egypt.
· The native Egyptian artistic tradition keeps its vitality.
· Egyptian language still used in its hieroglyphic and demotic forms.
· Egyptian literary tradition continues to flourish (large number of works in demotic).
· But the arrival of a Greek-speaking elite had an enormous impact on cultural patterns (e.g.: Egyptian story cycles).
· Literary and technical works translated into Greek (e.g.: Manetho’s list of the pharaohs).
· Diffusion of the works of classical Greece in Egypt.
· A Greek elite class
· Two interacting but distinct cultural traditions in Ptolemaic Egypt.
· In social context, not many direct evidence of racial discrimination.
· But evidence of Greeks' social and economic superiority.
· Intermarriage: a means for Egyptians to better their status and Hellenize.
· Many native Egyptians learned to speak Greek and tried to assimilate themselves.
· The greatest of Alexander's foundations.
· City divided into five regions, known as Alpha, Beta (the Palace area), Gamma, Delta (the Jewish quarter), and Epsilon.
· The great buildings included:
o the palace,
o Alexander's tomb,
o the temple of the Muses (Museum),
o the academy and library (etc).
· Two harbours.
· Famous lighthouse on an offshore island.
· A cosmopolitan city (Strabo: “a universal reservoir”).
Austin #292: A description of Alexandria (and a map).
Austin # 326: the Potter’s Oracle (excepts).
· Unique place in the history of literature, ideas, scholarship, and science.
· Greek culture was preserved and developed.
· Maybe as soon as in the reign of Ptolemy I Soter, the Museum was established.
· Museum means “Shrine of the Muses”.
· Attempt to bring together the whole of the earlier Greek science, art, and literature.
· Ptolemy I believed the Greek culture to be superior to Egyptian culture.
· Hence this attempt to preserve it.
· Aristotle’s Lyceum and Plato's Academy may have been models for this research center.
· Some points in common with the modern university (information is open for foreign scholars, who may contribute).
· One day the library will count as much as 500’000 books
· For the ancient world it is an astonishing number.
· To rescue and archive all Greek knowledge.
· And to obtain copies of every known work.
· Ptolemy III Euergetes used to seize cargoes of books from ships docked at Alexandria to make copies of them (he kept the originals!).
· But the libraries were open to all those who could read and who wished to learn.
· The Greek alphabet (easier than Egyptian hieroglyphs) facilitated the spread of knowledge.
· New age of learning.
· The eventual fate of the Library is unknown.
· A significant portion have been destroyed during Julius Caesar's Alexandrian war.
· The rest may have perished during the 270s (AD), along with the palace quarter.
· It seems it was no more at the time of the Arab conquest (7th century AD).
· Because of dangerous sailing conditions in the region, the construction of a lighthouse was necessary.
· Built on the island of Pharos.
· Project initiated by Ptolemy Soter, but completed after his death.
· Dedicated to the Savior Gods (Ptolemy Soter and Berenice).
· Used fire at night and reflecting sun rays during the day.
· Severely damaged by two earthquakes in 1303 and in 1323.
· The remains destroyed in AD 1480 by a Sultan, Qaitbay, who decided to build a medieval fort on the same spot.
· The major poets of the Hellenistic period (Theocritus, Callimachus, Apollonius of Rhodes), all took up residence and wrote there.
· Scholarship flourished, preserving and ordering the manuscript traditions of much of the classical literature.
· Cultural influence of Alexandria's Jewish community (Pentateuch was first translated into Greek at Alexandria).
· Alexandria: the centre of the book trade.
· Enormous achievement in scientific fields.
· Great advances in pure mathematics, mechanics, physics, geography, and medicine.
· Euclid: systematization of mathematical knowledge, development of the method of proof by deduction from axioms.
· Eratosthenes: calculation of the Earth's circumference, map of the world (latitude and longitude).
· School of medicine: great reputation.
· Philosophical studies.