Week 9 - The Persian Wars (II)

Readings: Dunstan, chapter X.

A new political leadership: Themistocles (democratic party) and Aristides (aristocratic party).
Themistocles convinced his fellow citizens to use the profits from the Laurion silver mines to build a fleet.
He also persuaded the Athenians to fortify the port of the Piraeus.
Greeks heard that Darius’ son, Xerxes, was preparing another invasion of Greece.
490: construction of the bridges at Hellespont and the channel at Athos.

Xerxes’ preparations
Propaganda designed to induce many areas of Greece to capitulate without a fight.
Bridge over the Hellespont (using over 600 ships).
Canal dug across the isthmus to avoid the Cape of Mount Athos.
The largest army that had been seen to this date.

Estimation of Xerxes' force: 150,000-250,000 combatants (according to Herodotus: over 2,6 million, obviously an exaggeration).
The best cavalry of the Mediterranean area.
His fleet: approximately 1200 ships (including transports).
His goal: to subjugate the whole of Greece (hence the extensive preparations).

480 BC, Xerxes crossed the Hellespont into Thrace.
The Greeks gathered at Corinth in 481 BC to discuss strategy.
Alliance led by Athens and Sparta.
Spartans insisted that the main defense should be at the Isthmus of Corinth.
Objected from Athens and the city-states of Central Greece.
Danger to being outflanked by sea and attacked from two sides at the same time.
Decision: a force sent to hold the Persians in Thessaly (narrow passes).
10,000 Hoplites sent under the command of Evaenetus (Sparta) and Themistocles (Athens).
On arrival, Evaenetus, seing too many passes to be held, retreated to the Isthmus of Corinth.

Defense of Central Greece in the area west of the Euboean Channel.
Narrow, easily defended passes (also, the large Persian fleet at a disadvantage).
If the land forces could hold long enough, the Greek Navy would have a chance to inflict a defeat upon the Persian fleet.
Greek plan: to stand at Thermopylae supported by their Navy in the Malian Gulf.
7000 to 8000 Hoplites and light troops (including dubious Boeotians) led by Spartan king Leonidas.
300 triremes led by Themistocles.

To arrive simultaneously
- at Thermopylae with their army
- and at the northern end of the Euboean Channel with their fleet.
Phoenicians were supposed to trap the Greek fleet from the south.
But the Persian Fleet was mauled by a storm : loss of 400 warships (Herodotus).

At the same time, Persian attempt to break through the pass at Thermopylae.
Leonidas chose to defend the narrow defile.
A few men would be able to hold it against a much larger number.
Xerxes delayed his attack for four days (vainly hoping a Persian naval victory at Artemision).
Persians repulsed by the superior Greek hoplites.
Xerxes was running short of supplies and needed a quick resolution.
Betrayal: a Greek (Ephialtes) told Xerxes of the existence of the pass guarded by the Phocians.
Leonidas attacked from the rear.
Strategic withdrawal?
Leonidas, retaining only the Spartans, their Peloponnesian allies, and perhaps others.
He and his remaining troops were overrun.

Attica fell to the Persians, but necessity to defeat the Greek fleet.
Themistocles favored an early battle; the Peloponnesians preferred to concentrated on the naval defense of the Isthmus.
Themistocles was able to force a decision.
Strategic importance of the narrow confines of the Straights of Salamis.

Themistocles purposely left the channel between Salamis and Magara open and unguarded.
Xerxes then divided his fleet.
Greek fleet: 300 warships.
Persians quickly attacked by the Greeks (disorder in the Persian formation).
Encircling movement behind the Persian center: Ionian Greeks (Persians’ allies) forced to retreat.
Heavy Persian losses (Herodotus: over 200 ships).
Xerxes cannot provision his huge army anymore: he withdraws.

Superior Greek tactics; Persians' ineptitude in tactical and strategic planning.
The victory strengthened both the morale and the will of the Greeks.
Xerxes forced to return to his Empire to prevent widespread revolt.
He left part of his army in Thessaly, Thrace, and Macedonia (continued threat to Greek independance).

Persians attempted to entice the Athenians into a treaty (failure).
479: The Persian general Mardonius marched on Athens.
Agreement between Athens and Sparta to make an immediate offensive.
Mardonius set once again fire to Athens, and retired to Boeotia, between Thebes and Plataea (plains).
Greek force, commanded by the Spartan general Pausanias, on a slope overlooking the plain.
Greek troops: 110,000 (Herodotus).
Persian Troops: 300,000 less 50,000 (Herodotus) or 120,000 Persians and 7000 Greeks (Ctesias)

Mardonius renounced to his advantage and attacked with his cavalry.
Tactical advantage of the Hoplites over the sparabara formation.
The Persians were annihilated; Mardonius killed.
The Persian Artabazus then took command and immediately retreated.
Casualties vary:
- Persians: 43,000 survivors (Herodotus), 100,000 dead (Diodorus)
- Greeks: 159 dead (Herodotus), 1360 (Plutarch), over 10,000 (Ephorus, Diodorus).
One of the most lethal battles in ancient history.

The same day, another Greek victory at the naval battle of Mycale,.
Before, in the spring of 479 BC: a new revolt in Ionia.
They turn to the Greek mainland for help.
A Greek fleet of 110 ships set sail from Delos
Battle near Mycale, in Ionia.
Greek victory at Mycale: the Ionian cities expelled the Persian tyrants and garrisons.
Now in league with Athens… beginning of the Athenian Empire…

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