A Paper for the 2nd World Congress of
Korean Studies, Pyongyang, August 3-7, 2004
By
Mortuza
Khaled
Department of History
University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh
&
Senior Research Fellow
The Academy of Korean Studies
Seoul, Republic of Korea
Mortuza Khaled
The most significant emotional factor
in public life today is nationalism. Nationalism is a modern and European
concept. In the mid fifteenth century the effect of European renaissance caused
the split of the Holy Roman Empire which formed the basis of nationalism. The
first full manifestation of modern nationalism took place in the16th century
England when king Henry VIII breached his country�s relations with the Pope.
Within a short time, Ferdinand and Isabella established independent Spain.
Louis the XIV established independent France in 1609. Netherlands became a
nation-state, and lastly, in 1871 Italy & Germany came forward as
nation-states. Nationalism is new but the sentiment of nationality is not new
(Hayes, 1954, p. 61). It was not until the end of fourteenth century that nationalism
began to be a universally recognized sentiment molding public and private life.
It is the sole determining factor of modern history. However, nationalism came
to prominence visible in Asia and Africa after the First World War. This
article aims at analyzing the nature and contemporary trend as well as future
of Asian nationalism in two Asian regions, the Korean peninsula and the Indian
subcontinent.
Nature of Nationalism in Indian Subcontinent
�Currently, Indian subcontinent is divided into three
countries- India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. If we look in the past history of
this region, it would appear that this region had been unified for several
times and dominated by different powers (Basham, 14). The Mauryan King Chandra
Gupta Maurya was the first to unify India followed by Asoka during the 3rd
century B.C. India was again united by the Gupta kings in 3rd century A.D.
Samudra Gupta was the owner of a vast empire. During the time of Mughal rule,
India was yet again unified and Mughal rulers built a great empire. This
unification was materialized by force and public opinion or sentiment of the
people was never count upon. Lastly, the British had established their
suzerainty over the declining Mughal Empire. During this time, India was once
again divided into many parts and each part was fighting against another. There
was no nationalistic sentiment visible among the Indians in the late 17th
century. The Indians revolted against the British in 1857. Some historians of
India identified it as the first Indian War of Independence (Adas, 16).
Whatever it may be called, in reality it was a combined protest of Indians
against British rule. Indians from different sections of the society
participated in this struggle.
����������������� At the end of 18th century the
British Government provided token political rights to Indians. In 1885, the
first political party of India, the Indian National Congress, was formed.
British bureaucrat Allan Octavian Hume took initiative for the formation of
this party (Roberts, 153). The main goal in forming this organization was to
know about the attitude of the Indian people that it may act as a safety under
to the British Empire. The British were very much afraid of in 1857-type revolt
in India (Percival:152).
The formation of Indian National Association, a revolutionary organization
established by Indians themselves under the leadership of Surendra Nath
Banerjee in Bengal one year earlier alarmed the British. It promoted them to
create Indian National Congress with a view to undermining the influence of the
Indian National Association. Seventy-three Indian delegates met in Bombay in
1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. They were mostly members of the
upwardly mobile and successful Western-educated provincial elites, engaged in
professions such as law, teaching, and journalism (Sarkar, 123). They had
acquired political experience from regional competition in the professions and
from their aspirations in securing nomination to various positions in
legislative councils, universities, and special commissions. At its inception,
the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources
essential to a political organization. It functioned more as a debating society
that met annually to express its loyalty to the Raj and passed numerous
resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities
in government, especially the civil service (Ghose, 77). In its first forty
years The Indian National Congress pursued the policy of providing advantages
to the upper class Indians. During this time communalism had spread throughout
the subcontinent. As a result, the upper class Muslims formed another political
organization, the all Indian Muslim League. Both parties tried their best to
preserve their own community interests, the Indian National Congress mainly of
Hindus and the Muslim League of the Muslims. In the late 1920s, the two
political factions in India became rival of each other.
In the
1920s, another political party, the Communist Party, emerged in India. In the
1920s and 1930s the communist party cooperated with the National Congress. In
the 1940s, when British rule was about to come to an end, there was no common
nationalist agenda amongst the Indian political parties, although every party
demanded independence from its own point of view.
In 1940 the League passed what came to be known as the Pakistan Resolution, which demanded separate states in the Muslim-majority areas of India (in the northwest, centered on Punjab, and in the east, centered on Bengal) and independence. Majority of the Muslims supported the Muslim League in its demand, while Hindus (and some Muslims) supported the Congress, which opposed partition of British India. On the other hand, the National Congress stood for a one-nation theory (Dixit, 56). The third political party, the Communist Party explained the Indian Nationalism in the light of Stalin�s Marxism and the National Question and Lenin�s socialist lines. They explained that India was a state of seventeen nations. Each nation of India had right to sovereignty and self-determination (Chandra,127). Therefore, before independence India�s question of nationalism remained unsolved. The British Government divided the Indian subcontinent into two parts according to the demands of Muslim League. Hindu dominated India and Muslim majority Pakistan emerged in the middle of 20th century.
������������
�In
comparison to India, the scenario was quite different in the Korean Peninsula.
At the end of the Second World War two states come into being on the basis of
the surrender of Japanese soldiers in Korea. The Republic of Korea and the
Democratic People�s Republic of Korea emerged as two states in the southern and
northern parts of the peninsula. But the history of Korean Nationalism was
quite old. It is inherent with the developments of Korea�s past history. In
spite of the emergence of two states, the Korean peninsula has a long history
as a unified nation. Indeed, the distinct Korean national identity arose as
early as the eighth century A.D. There mere great national accomplishments
during the reigns of Silla and Kory dynasties. However, time to time, there
mere some interruptions. The main blow to the programme of national
construction came from foreign invasions of Kitham, Yajin and Mongols. The
foreign invasions ravaged the country thoroughly. But at the same time, they
strengthened the national spirit of the Korean people (Agarwal,5). This spirit
formed its manifestation during the later period of Yi dynasty rule.
Korean Writing System: At the
beginning of civilizations in East Asia the Koreans had no writing system of
their own. They used Chinese characters to express their thoughts in the idu
system that was instituted during the Shilla period. Scholarly works were
written in pure Chinese as all government documents were compiled in the
Chinese language. Afterwards, awareness grew among Neo-Confucian Literati
class. They realized that they must have a writing system of their own. The
king was also concerned for the invention of a new scientific writing system
which may be learned by his subjects easily. Under Choson king� Sejong 's patronizing initiative the
scholars devoted themselves to the development of an indigenous writing system
of Korea.
�King Sejong
commissioned famous Neo-Confucian scholar Song Sam-mum and Chong In-ji of the
Academy of Scholars to create an indigenous writing system for the Korean
language. In 1443 they presented to the king a phonetic writing system. The
king officially adopted it, and promulgated it with a royal edict in 1446. The
new system was called Hunmin chong-um. The Korean script is commonly called
han-gul. This simple but scientific system of writing style consisted of eleven
vowels, fourteen consonants, eleven double vowels and thirteen double
consonants. The writing system adopted the Chinese style of writing, that is to
say, their writing begins from the upper right-hand corner and is read down
vertically. The new writing system enabled the Koreans to transcribe their
spoken words into writing. The writing system became increasingly important as
medium of communication for the commoners. It gradually increased nationalistic
feeling among the Koreans (Choo Young-ha:36).
Development of Korean Literature: Neo-Confucian
Literati also endeavored to develop Korean literature. Soon after the invention
of alphabet, Sejong established the Office for Publication in Han'gul
and had it bring out a number of major works. While many scholars composed
Chinese-style poems known in Korean as Hanshi, an increasing number of
Neo-Confucian Literati wrote two four-syllable semantic units of Korean which
were was known as kasa and shijo. These two styles are distinctive
Korean poetic forms which developed toward the end of the Koryo period.
Neo-Confucian �Literati� popularized it. Among the kasa writers was
Chong Chol (1536-1593) who composed such song as Song of the Eastern Scenes.
All Chinese-style poems were written in Chinese characters. In mid-Choson
period, the lyrical form of kasa was widely composed. Although written
in Chinese as a kind of prose-poetry, in its form the kasa exhibited
characteristics of typical Korean lyric verse. Through the kasa, the
Neo-Confucian literati were able to express vividly their attachment to the
beauties of nature which constituted a part of their life (Carter J. Eckert:
153) . During this time another type of Korean poetry known as shijo was
developed. All shijo were written in Korean after the promulgation of
the han-gul. The shijo or "occasional verses" became
increasingly popular as a medium for expressing the sentiments of the people.
Mostly the yangban people including many women composed the shijo.
This literary development helped the growth of Korea�s own culture and become
an element of nationalism.
Development of Science and Technology: During
this period under the encouragement and active patronage of the Yi kings, Neo-Confucian
Literati class developed considerably in the fields of science and technology.
Worthy of mention first of all is the agricultural manual called Straight Talk
on Farming (Nongsa chiksol), compiled under Sejong in 1430. This manual was
designed to meet the specific conditions of Korean agriculture, on the premise
that the climate and soil of Korea are different from those of China and so
make it problematical to apply unmodified�
practices of Chinese agriculture. Sejong first had each provincial
jurisdiction survey and report the methods used by the older and experienced
farmers in its area and then put together this handbook on ways of storing
seed, improving fertility, transplanting rice seedlings, and the like
(Ki-baik:195).
����������������� With
the decline of Buddhism and the rise of Neo-Confucianism, new forms replaced
the ancient forms of porcelain ware, which had been popularized by a
Buddhist-oriented elite of Koryo. It happened in response to a growing demand
of the court and the yangban class. Among them were water droppers,
brush holders, trays, and vases. More widely used porcelain ware was a heavy,
unpretentious punch'ong,or� "power
green" ware, such as variously shaped and sized bottles and jars with
either over-glaze or under-glaze decorations. All these became important items
in trade with Japan. Increasing amounts of brown-glazed ware of all sizes were
produced as the potter's wheel was widely used (Nahm:104).
New Arts--rise of the Genre Painters: The
Neo-Confucian Literati during the Yi dynasty viewed art as was what artisans
produced. If they were to take an interest in such pursuits it would be merely
as a pastime, or avocation. The loosening of the intellectual climate and the
changing social environment, coupled with the growing interest in nativism and
the search for realities, encouraged Korean artists to create new literature
and arts (Che-won Kim:174). As a result, a new Korean genre painting
originated. More colors and humorously depicting manners and customs of the yangban
gentlemen are the main characteristic of genre painting of this period. (Lee,
Ki-Baik:197). These artists gave expression to styles of their own. The
popularity of human likenesses, for its part, was owing to the need felt by yangban
for portraits to celebrate their rise to eminence in society. Portraits were
valued not merely as lifelike representations but as animated portrayals of the
inner spirit of their subjects. Thus the Neo-Confucian painters displayed
exceptional creative and artistic qualities in their work, which led to the
eventual evolution of a Korean indigenous art. Their nativism and their
reproduction of the realities of life in their paintings contributed much to
the development of Korean national culture.
The Writing of Histories: During
this period a more active interest in the compilation of historical works took
place. The Neo-Confucian Literati worked for strengthening their sense of
identity as a distinct race and gave force to the concept of their descent from
a common ancestor (Ki-baik:166). Secondly, these works present reminiscences of
earlier ages in a manner clearly evidencing the deep respect which the authors
felt for the traditions and legacy of their past history. Many historical
materials which were neglected earlier now came to be utilized. The history of
the past was viewed as a mirror, or exemplar for government in the present. The
tradition of preparing a history of each reign began in 1413 with the
compilation of the Annals of the King T'aejo and continued thereafter to the
dynasty. At almost the same time another work, Essentials of Koryo History, was
compiled in strict chronological format.�
In 1485 Korea's first overall history the Comprehensive Mirror of the
Eastern Kingdom was published which treated the entire Korean history from the
mythical Tan'gun through the Koryo period. In this way Neo-Confucian Literati
worked for building the national identity and culture through their Historical
literature. (Eckert:125).
The Development of Folk Culture: The Neo-Confucian
Literate class had created a nationalist feeling in every sphere of life. The
common people now were aware of their cultural heritage and separate identity
from the Chinese. Their modes of life had led to the rise of a new and
significant Korean culture. During this time hunger of common people for
cultural outlets to express their emotions and relieve their anxieties, may
have contributed to the rise of a new folk culture. It included literature,
painting, music and dance. The snobbish people, who worshipped things Chinese,
looked down upon the new culture promoted by the common folk (Nahm : 135). Many
members of the yangban class who had formal education in Chinese studies
nurtured the folk culture. Their desire to escape from inflexible conventions
and to express themselves individuality, as well as their desire to flee from
their daily life, may have led them to engage in cultural revolt (Nahm : 135).
The development of folk painting is another significant aspect of the
ever-growing folk culture in the middle and late Yi period. The majority of
folk painters were of lower strata of society whose works were regarded as
artistically inferior (Yi: 578) New commercial artists capitalized on the
increasing popularity of folk paintings. In their paintings, Korean folk artists
amply demonstrated sensitivity, popular beliefs, honesty, and truthfulness. The
folk beliefs, sense of humor and satire, simplicity, the search for the
realities and the meaning of being, and the relationship between������ nature and the animal world, as well as
between one creature and another, are clearly reflected in systematic ways and
in remarkably effective economized details. The folk painting became unique
aspects of painting that is a valuable cultural heritage of the Korean
civilization (Ha Tae-hung:92). In this way, the Korean nationalism took shape
as during the period of 15th and 16th century. Thus newly emerging Literate
class played a vital role in the creation of separate national identity.
Second Phase of
Korean Nationalism
The Second phase of the development of Korean
nationalism had begun in the early part of the 20th century while Korea was
occupied and turned into a Japanese colony. During this period the Japanese
colonial government in Korea undertook black measures in order to destroy the cultural
and ethnic identity of the Koreans. They issued education ordinance in 1911 in
which it was stated that the purpose of education in Korea was to produce
�loyal and obedient� and useful subjects of the Japanese emperor (Nahm,252).
The Japanese tried to concentrate upon only elementary education and to
discourage �unnecessary� higher education (Myers,294).
�The study of
Japanese language was made compulsory at all approved schools. The Japanese
authorities banned instruction in Korean history and geography. All textbooks,
which were previously used in Korean schools were confiscated and only those
approved by the government were allowed. The Japanese colonial government
didn�t make the slightest concessions in the political area in accordance with
the demands of Korean nationalists. Instead it followed a ruthless policy of
persecution of the nationalists. Under Japanese colonialism, the Korean economy
was considered a part of the Japanese and an object of exploitation especially
for rice, human and natural resources. The Japanese administrative policy in
Korea was often inhumane, brutal and despotic in nature. The Japanese conducted
destructive activities in Korea and destroyed the military, political and
economic systems of Korea which in an inhumane manner. The Japanese
systematically conducted different repressive measures on the Koreans and
oppressed them.
The Japanese intended to transform Korea into one of
their provinces. They declared Korea a province of Japan and changed its name
Chosen. The main thrust of the Japanese policy in Korea was economic and
cultural assimilation of the country with the ultimate aim to make it an
integral part of the Japanese empire (Agrawal, 101). Thousands of Japanese
farmers were brought to Korea, and they received free lands or bought farmland
at a low price. Japan�s economic policy was to make Korea an agricultural
colony which would produce more food grains and raw materials for Japan
(Nahm,1987, 94).
Although Japan tried to eliminate Korean national
consciousness through her military, political, economic and cultural policy,
the Korean people never forgot that they had in existence strong independent
and rich national culture for long. Korean nationalistic movement spread out
seriously while President Woodrow Wilson declared self-determination proposal
in Versailles in1919. Mass movements swept the whole of Korea. Day by day
nationwide demonstrations and mass protests increased gradually. Though the
Japanese put down these protests fiercely, it raised the nationalistic feelings
among the Koreans. The sufferings of the Korean masses strengthened their
spirit of resistance to the alien rule. Moreover, modern education,
socio-economic changes, and contact with the western ideas and institutions of
democracy, national sovereignty, civil rights, etc. resulted in the political
awakening of the Korean masses (Agrawal, p. 104)
�During the
period of 1920s, various nationalist and communist groups emerged in Korea. In
spite of their differences in opinions all, worked to eliminate the Japanese
oppressive rule. The Korean nationalists carried on anti-Japan independence
struggles in Korea, Manchuria, China and Russia. They formed �governments in
exile� in 1919,which had its armies, secret terrorists groups who fought the
Japanese and Korean traitors. During this period nationalist movement not only
began at home but also in abroad. The overseas Koreans in China, Manchuria,
Siberia, the United States and even in Japan adopted various programs which
promoted their nationalist movements (Nahm 1993, 201). The Korean nationalists
of this period may be divided into the following:
Pro-Soviet Communists led by Gen. Lee Tong Whi (later
by Kim Il Sung)
Pro-Mao Communists led by Kim Tu Bong (the subject of
an American book � The Song of Arirang),
�Anti-foreign� nationalists led by Kim Ku, and
Pro-American nationalists led by Rhee Syngman and
Philip Ahn.
There were also other factions. They spent more time
fighting among themselves than with the Japanese (Lee Wha Rang). During this
time the entire Korean nation wanted to oust Japanese rule and make Korea
independent.
Japan�s defeat in World War II had brought the
cherished liberation of the peninsula. It had also created a geopolitical
vacuum in Northeast Asia that neither of the two great powers of postwar era,
the United Stated and the Soviet Union was willing to relinquish to the other,
or to the Koreans themselves (Carter J Eckert, 327). Within less than five
years, the interactions of these forces, internal as well as external, led to national
division and a devastating civil war. In the colonial period, Japan had
shattered the foundation of Korean agrarian society. After World War II it was
a maelstrom of old and new classes, political groups, and ideologies. During
this period Korean society was dotted with an assortment of capitalists and
white-collar professionals. The major powers�
also played a vital role in the division of the country. Despite the
existence of a strong nationalist sentiment among all classes of Koreans, the
country was divided. At the same time, politicization of Korean society and
rise of communism also contributed to the situation. Till now, all initiatives
taken for reunification of Korea have failed. Now we turn again to the
condition of Indian nationalism.
Nationalism in
Indian Subcontinent at the Second half of 20th century
As mentioned earlier, question of nationalism remained
unresolved in the subcontinent. In June 1947 Congress and the Muslim League
leaders agreed to a partition scheme of the country along religious lines, with
predominantly Hindu areas allocated to India and Muslim areas to Pakistan. They
agreed to a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal as
well. Hindu, Muslim, and Sikh refugees numbering in millions streamed across
the newly drawn borders (Raychoudhary,148). In Punjab, where the Sikh community
was cut in half, a period of terrible bloodshed followed. In Bengal, where
Gandhi became what Lord Mountbatten called a �one-man boundary force,� the
violence was insignificant in comparison to Punjab. On India�s independence
day, August 15, 1947, Gandhi was in Calcutta rather than Delhi, mourning the
division of the country rather than celebrating the self-rule for which he had
fought.
��In this way, after two hundred years of British
rule, there emerged two independent states i.e., India and Pakistan The Indian
Union is administratively one and a large nation, but ethnically it is a
collection of many diverse nationalities. The British brought forcefully
together several disparate and historically separate ethnic nations into one
political state. Many of these ethnic nationalities have factions desiring
independence. Therefore, in so many parts of India there emerged separatist
movement especially in eastern states such as Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Nagaland and also in Tripura. In Assam The United Liberation Front
of Assam (ULFA) militant wing of Assamese are fighting for secessionism. It
has several bases in Bhutan and in Assam. It battles against the Indian Army.
In the south, especially in Tamil Nadu and in the northwest Punjab and Kashmir
separatist movements and struggles are going on. Most of the separatists tried
to solve their problems through the help of major power�s but they do not get
enough support from them. The Indian government and forces always carry out
propaganda for the national harmony and unity. Usually Hindi speaking belt
dominate the Indian national politics. In the western part, Muslim separatists
of Kashmir are carrying out separatist movement since a long time. (For detail
information about the Indian separatists group see, http://www.cromwell-intl.com/security/nu/ipk.html)
The rebel separatist groups killed two Indian Prime
Ministers, Mrs Indira� Gandhi and� Rajiv Gandhi. In June 1984, Mrs Indira
Gandhi ordered the army to fight its way into the main shrine of the Sikh
religion, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, where Sikh terrorists had established
their headquarters. About 1,000 people, including the main terrorist leaders,
died in the battle. All the buildings of the complex, with the exception of the
central shrine, were badly damaged. Sikhs everywhere were outraged at the
desecration. On October 31, 1984, Sikh members of her security guard killed
Indira Gandhi. Later on Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated in May
1991 by Tamil terrorists.
Pakistan, another country of the Indian subcontinent,
emerged mainly on the basis of Muslim nationalism. Within a short time,
nationalist movement took place in Pakistan�s eastern province i.e, East
Pakistan. East Pakistani people thought that Pakistani rulers were trying to
destroy their culture and separate identity and behaved like a colonial power.
Gradually, in East Pakistan, nationalist movement became stronger and finally
in 1971, it was separated from Pakistan. The emergence of East Pakistan proved
that religion was not a determining element of nationalism. Moreover, the
growth of Shia militancy led to the establishment of groups such as
Tehrik-e-Jafria, they received help from Iran where the Islamic revolution
earlier in 1979. It has boosted Shia insurgency in Pakistan. There are
also conflicts taking places between Mahijar�the migrated Muslim and local
Muslims which hinder the concept of Pakistani nationalism. In Pakistan the two
decades of violence conflicts between Sunni and Shia extremists
manifest the irreverence�s of religion as a basis of nationalism.
Korean Nationalism
in the Late 20th Century
An armistice ended the Korean War on July 27, 1953. It
was a temporary armistice. It was decided that after three months, a political
conference should be held to settle the peaceful settlement of Korean question.
Later on, the Geneva Conference met and called for armistice accord in April
1954. It declared that free elections should be held for establishing a unified
Korea. But the South Korean President Rhee had been reluctant to accept the
truce and expressed his wish to resume war to unify Korea. The UN General
Assembly passed a resolution in November 1955 that the armistice should be
continued. Thus the question of unified Korea was postponed sine die. The
Korean War forced the Korean people, long conscious of their ethnic unity,
painfully to face the tragic reality that their nation has been partitioned and
their hope for eventual reunification had become still more remote (Ki-bail
Lee, p.224).
In the meantime, different political systems were
introduced in both Koreas. In North Korea the communist government
indoctrinated people that their first duty was to serve the state, and their
primary purpose in life was to �Liberate the southern half of the Republic�
which means the incorporation of the south with the north (Nahm, 1993, 122).Yet
the reunification issue has been the dominant issue for both Koreas. From
President Syngman Rhee, the first President of Republic in 1948 down to
President Kim Dan Jung at the turn of the century, initiatives have been
undertaken for a peaceful unification of Korea (Jipyong J.Kim, 84).
In spite of the hostile political situation, Pyongyang
and Seoul agreed in principle for reunification in 1972. Both countries agreed
that unification should be achieved peacefully and without foreign
interference. For the next twenty years, however, they continued to differ
substantially on the practical methods of attaining reunification. Thus the
goal of unification of the Korean peninsula continues, but tactics have changed
depending on the perception of opportunities and limitation implicit in
shifting domestic and external situation (Savada, p.195). At the beginning of
Twenty First Century Kim Dae-jung pursued Sunshine Policy emphasizing peaceful
unification. But this attempt also did not materialize owing to a technical
reason. Both Korea speak of reunification from their strong perception of
nationalism.
Trend of
Nationalism in Asia in the 21st century
Now at the beginning of 21st century, concept of
Nationalism in the Indian subcontinent has become fragile day by day. In
Pakistan several religious and regional groups do not try to reconcile
themselves with the nationalistic character of Pakistan. They, through the use
of force are trying to solve their problems. In India, more than a dozen
regional separatist groups are working in a similar way. They are engaged in
war with the government forces. All these groups do not get mass support or
from the major powers outside the country. From the last decade of the past
century, the concept of globalization has become stronger. In spite of declining
nationalistic feelings, it is only for economic reasons that separatist
movements have not been successful in the subcontinent.
On the otherhand, the situation in the Korean
Peninsula is different. All Koreans still believe in one nationhood. Their
history, culture, heritage and ancestors are common. A strong nationalistic
feeling is always prevalent in whole of the Korean peninsula. Thus in spite of
separation, the Koreans have strong nationalistic feelings which are absent in
Indian and Pakistani peoples though both countries gained independence on the
basis of nationalism. Korean people possess a strong nationalist psychology
which is uncommon in the Indian subcontinent.
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