An Examination Project Article
Submitted by: Maie Hussein Babikir
For the module L00880
Date: 11[s1] July 2003
Introduction:
One of the keys to enabling students to learn more effectively is to give them opportunities to be responsible for their own learning. This is not always easy to do in the traditional class and isn’t always welcomed by students because they familiarized to the traditional method.
This article reports on a tutorial constructivist-learning event designed and presented to investigate the success nesses of using new and developed constructivist learning and teaching method.
The structure of the program shaped in a classroom filled with different abilities working collaboratively in English classroom. Where the teacher coaches students
Instead of lecturing from the front of the room, computer replace blackboard.
This article includes, in the literature survey, the General learning theoretical principles included the theories for Gagne, Bloom, Malone, and Keller.
The aspects of constructivism that we built on include the theory for Von Glaserfeld.
In the general design issues there is research for Jonassen, and at the last of the literature survey there is the assessment and evaluation issues written by Taylor.
Research perspective includes the articles written by Scheidinger, Reigeluth, Reeves, Oliver, Hart, Duchastel, ID2, and MIT.
The project descriptions, there we explained the out comes, the target population where we examined our lesson and the students had done the activities.
Also, there is explanation of how did I began and ending the lesson.
This followed by the matrix of the research.
The findings of this article is that:
v Instructional design attracts learners’ attention.
v Computer facilitates learning and ignoring using it was an obstacle against event application.
v Posttest is an effective tool in measuring existing knowledge.
v Easy directions make easy transference through parts’ of the lesson.
v Computerized test was acceptable technique among learners.
The sound “EA” Is one of the language branches, which we are dealing to teach using constructivist approach.
We knew that, the letter “E” has certain sound when pronounced separately as in words;( inlet, easy, and case), also the letter “A” gives certain sound when pronounced separately, as in words; (cab, and camera). But, when the two letters pronounced together they gave anew-different sound from both “A”& “E”. This produced sound, takes different sounds among words, for example:(eagerly- head-treasure-team…etc.).
In this lesson, am trying to inform the learners about the ideal and appropriate use and pronunciations of the sound “EA”, also, learners could differentiae between this sound and other sounds have the similar sound but in different forms.
The reason which encourage me to chose
this subject is that; most of foreign language learners mix pronouncing the
sound “ea”, sometimes they pronounced it in one
form for all of sounds, so this will be an opportunity to inform them about the
ideal use of this sound.
General learning theoretical principles:
“Learning is something that takes place inside a
person’s head -in the brain”
(Gagne, 1985).
Gagne has identified five types of learning:
· Verbal information.
· Intellectual skills.
· Cognitive strategies.
· Motor skills &
· Attitudes.
“He suggested that they require different instructional techniques”. (Gagne, 1996)
Internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning
(Gagne, 1985).
His theory outlines nine instructional events they
are:
· Gaining attention.
· Informing learner of the objective.
· Stimulating recall of prior learning.
· Presenting the stimulus.
· Providing learning guidance.
· Eliciting performance.
· Assessing performance.
· Enhancing retention and
· Transfer.
In his early research on motivation. (Malone, 1981), suggested three relevant factors:
Challenge, curiosity, and fantasy. Later, he added learner control.
· Challenge: -
He considered the level of challenge as the most important principles; the level of challenge should be individualized for and adjusted to the learner. A lesson should not be too easy but also not too difficult.
· Curiosity: -
He had differentiated between sensory and cognitive curiosity. Visual effects that are surprising or attract attention arouse sensory curiosity. Cognitive curiosity is aroused by information that conflicts with learner’s existing knowledge or expectation.
·
Fantasy: -
Its situations encourage learner to imagine themselves in imaginary context or events using vivid realistic images.
· Control: -
In learner control there are three relevant rules; contingency, choice, and power.
According to contingency rule, what the lesson does should be clearly a result of the learner’s actions and responses.
The choice rule encourages procedures, such as menus and global branching options.
The notion of power is that lessons in which learners’ actions have “powerful effects” will be very motivating. Such lessons include environments in which the learner creates computer programs or uses computer tools, such as graphic programs (Malone& lepper, 1987).
The popular motivation theory in multimedia design is that of Keller
(Keller, 1988).
Keller suggested four components as being essential to motivation they are:
· Attention: attention must not only be captured early in the lesson but be maintained throughout.
· Relevance: showing learners that what they are learning will be useful to them. Amore direct way is for content and examples to be those of interest, or importance, to the learner.
· Confidence: three practices increase confidence
i. Making expectations clear for learners.
ii. Providing opportunities to be successful in the lesson.
iii. Giving learner personal control.
- Satisfaction: several activities increase satisfaction by enabling learners to apply what they have learned in real and useful ways. These include providing positive consequences following progress, giving encouragement during times of difficulty, and being fair. (Keller, 1988).
Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Bloom 1956)
Categories in the cognitive domain could be summarized as below:
· Knowledge
· Comprehension
· Application
· Analysis
· Synthesis
· Evaluation
Constructivist learning theory:
The major idea in the theory of Bruner is that:
The learner selects and transforms information; construct hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so (Bruner, 1966).
Bruner states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
· Students’ predisposition towards learning.
· The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that the learner can most readily grasp it.
· The most effective sequences in which to present material; and
·
The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.
Constructivist theory views the student as one who acts on objects and events within his or her environment and thereby gains some understanding of the features held by the objects and events.
In this theory, the emphasis is placed on the student rather than the teacher. Teachers are seen as facilitators or coaches who assist students construct their own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.
The following
basic principles of radical constructivism emerge quite clearly if one tries to
comprise as much as possible of Piaget's writings in one coherent theory:
·
Knowledge is not passively received either
through the senses or by way of communication.
·
The cognizing subject actively builds up knowledge.
· The function of cognition is adaptive, in the biological sense of the term, tending towards fits or viability; cognition serves the subject’s organization of the experiential world, not the discovery of an objective ontological reality. Von Glaserfeld (1998).
The aspects of constructivism that we built on:
·
Knowledge is actively constructed by the individual:
Learning is not appasive activity. The process of learning takes place when individuals attempt to make sense of the world around them.
·
Learning is both, an individual and social process:
Constructivists believe that knowledge is developmentally organized into universal cognitive structure.
· Learning is an organizational process:
That enables people to make Sense of their world.
This is constructivist concept of equilibration.
· Cognition serves the organization of the experiential world:
Because all individuals lead different lives, the purpose of learning is
to allow people to organize what they have experienced. Thus, rather than
“knowing old facts about “reality” learning provides individuals with believes
about the world in which they live. (Von Glaserfeld, 1995).
·
Reality represents an interpretation:
Information is shifted by the individual to create believes from interpretations
Of self-referent information. The construction of meaning relies on interpretation. (Von Glaserfeld& Steffe, 1991).
These are the aspects of constructivism from which we built on.
Constructivist learning theory:
The major idea in the theory of Bruner is that:
The learner selects and transforms information; construct hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so (Bruner, 1966).
Bruner states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:
· Students’ predisposition towards learning.
· The ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that the learner can most readily grasp it.
· The most effective sequences in which to present material; and
·
The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.
General design issues:
Learning theory is in the midst of another revolution (Jonassen, 1991). The new theory that is being used for representing the knowledge construction process is constructivism
Mindtools for Schools (Jonassen, in press) that students cannot use these tools without thinking deeply about the content that they are learning, and second, if they choose to use these tools to help them learn, the tools will facilitate the learning process.
Jonassen considered computers, as cognitive learning tools rather than as instructional media.
Computer technologies as cognitive tools represent a significant departure from traditional conceptions of technologies.
Cognitive
tools are generalizable computer tools that are intended to engage and
facilitate cognitive processing--hence cognitive tools (Kommers, Jonassen,
& Mayes, 1992).
In his strategies of learning, (Jonassen, 1988)…it is possible for a program to provide general features or tools that, if used, will enhance the users’ own learning strategies.
Learning strategies are self-initiated .A program can provide features that enable or facilitate such activities.
Assessment and evaluation issues:
“Assessing the efficacy of online teaching with the Constructivist On-Line Learning Environment Survey” Taylor (2000).
Discussed “the development of a questionnaire - the Constructivist On-Line Learning Environment Survey (COLLES)”. That they were designed to support the use of the World Wide Web (the Web) for teaching in higher education, especially for postgraduate professional development programs for which social constructivism is a key pedagogical referent.
“There are two
main ways to incorporate computers in the testing process: using the computer
as an aid in constructing the test and using it to administer the test”(Alessi,
2000).
In this research perspective am dealing with the most serious theories in the environment of learning, included Scheidinger, Reigeluth, Reeves, Oliver, Hart, Duchastel, ID2, and MIT.
Using computer in learning is the way or technique, in which we are dealing with in designing this lesson. (Scheidinger, 1999), had made some stress on using computer in education, as he called it “computerized education” It is an educational system where most of the learning is administered by the computer, with some help rendered by an advisor at the Learning Center and in presence of a juvenile instructor serving a group of learners”
The importance of interaction in learning is the one of the principles that we deal within this event “Interaction between the learner and his peers and between the learner and his pedagogues is of an utmost importance in the educational process”(Scheidinger, 1999).
Using computer in education leaves more time to use activities “Computerized education will leave more time for youth movement activities and thus provide more effective interaction between peers”(Scheidinger, 1999).
q Theoretical--research
q Empirical—research
q Interpretive—research
q Postmodern—research
q Developmental—research
q Evaluation—research
According to “the
methodology classification scheme” (Reeves,
1995) am dealing with the qualitative classification methodology, which
depends on the qualities of the selected target population.
In this event am dealing with motivation which considered as the most factors influence learning, the Motivation and Purpose of Educational Research and factors influences them as written by Oliver could be summarized as follow: in the following
1. “The motivation for, and the purpose behind, educational research are two entirely different issues.
2. These issues have significant impact on what research is done and how it is done.
3. The prime motivation for conducting educational research is not necessarily a wish neither to improve current practice nor to extend existing knowledge.
4. Measures of research relevance and value must be made from the viewpoint of the target audience.
5. Consideration
of the target audience in the planning of research can aid considerably in
ensuring research is relevant and of value to the community at large. (Oliver, 1995).
In the instructional design we are dealing with two major factors they are as considered by Merrill is concerned with two primary considerations: What to teach? And how to teach?”…. What to teach has two considerations: selection which enable us to choose the appropriate event and representation”…. How to teach specifies the way that these knowledge components are presented to the student in order to engage the student in an interaction that is appropriate for promoting the acquisition of the knowledge or skill that is the goal of the instruction."
Hart made some stress on the importance of
students’ self evaluation, and he mentioned that students considered computer
as cognitive tool in learning. (Hart,
1997).
q “There is a scientific discipline of instructional design.
q The discipline of instructional design is based on a set of specific assumptions.
q The discipline of instructional design is founded on scientific principles verified by empirical data”. (ID2, 1996).
“How to redefine and expand the conceptual framework and language to support thinking and creating on a more holistic, systemic level about what being digital will mean for learning”.
The Future of Learning Group explores
how new technologies can enable new ways of thinking, learning, and designing.
The group creates new "tools to think with" and explores how these
tools can help bring about change in real-world settings, such as schools,
museums, and under-served communities
(MIT, 1997).
Research procedure:
Following Gagné’s ten steps of instructional design, a constructivist-learning event had been designed which addressed his all five categories of learning.
Here, in this section of the article, I will indicate levels of bloom taxonomy that we are addressing with each learning outcome.
By using quantitative approach, the lesson was designed, following gagne ten steps as follow:
o Gaining attention: Students have been asked about necessary in formation related to our lesson, and when they failed to answer most questions properly, they informed that, in this lesson they will find out how many different sounds “ea” pattern can make.
o Informing learner of the objectives: The students prepared to the lesson that appears in slide show and the introduction showed that the lesson would be on the sound “ea”.
o Stimulating recall of prior learning: This had been done through pretest given to students to assess their prior knowledge according to the lesson.
o Presenting the stimulus: The form and design of the lesson-encouraged students to knew more and continue discovering the other parts of the lesson.
o Providing learning guidance: This shown clearly through the lesson so as to check their answers at the beginning of the lesson, then to check their performance due computer and new skills of printing and click& drag techniques.
o Elicit performance: Student showed how to make click and drag, also the icon that they needed to type answers.
o Assessing performance: Students when they asked to print answers for the pre test at the beginning of the lesson, they hadn’t any idea how to type and of course when they type the answers for the post test after hey had informed about the ideal use in printing, their performance would change.
o Enhancing retention: This had been done through the summative evaluation when they had been asked to answer questions.
o Transfer: The lesson was designed in away that made students go step by step through the parts of the lesson.
Indicating levels of bloom taxonomy we are addressing
with each outcome:
· In the first outcome, Students will recognize that the “ea” pattern has several sounds in English; this indicates the level of knowledge.
· Students will develop confidence in differentiating the varied “ea” sounds.
· Comprehension indicated through this outcome Students will be able to match pairs of words containing the same vowel sounds.
· Grasping indicated through this outcome, “ea” pattern could make many different sounds in English.
Research
descriptions:
This tutorial constructivist event on English language, based on the following outcomes, after this learning event:
v Students will recognize that the “EA” pattern has several sounds in English.
v Students will develop confidence in differentiating the varied “EA” sounds.
v Students will be able to match pairs of words containing the same vowel sounds.
v “EA” pattern can make many different sounds.
Target population analysis:
Physical characteristics:
six students, three males and three females
Average age: 16 years
old
Language: English language basically
“all of hem able to read and write in English”. All of them speaking Arabic
with different accents.
Education: High
secondary school, first grade.
Experience: Three of them “male & two female” able to print through computer, others ignore even how to open it.
Computer skills: Two of them have prior knowledge on typing and others showed observed improvement in using computer.
Motivation: They have strong motivation
to deal with computer also they liked English language so much which made me
feel surprise for their abilities in using it.
Six questions had been aroused, they were:
v Computers facilitate learning if learners have prior knowledge about it.
v The capability to use the existing knowledge through the posttest
v . The instructional design of the lesson help students to transfer through the parts of the lesson.
v To what extend did students were able to use computer properly.
v Computerized test was an acceptable technique among learners.
v Computer could be an obstacle against learning when learners ignored how to use it.
The event goes as follow:
I gave Students some ideas about our project, then they given computerized pretest to answer using computer word process, I had explained previously how to write down their answers and how to print answers according to computerized test.
I began the lesson after gained their attention by showing the presentation with an empty screen and I told them that, today you will find out how many different sounds “EA” can make.
I introduce the “EA”sounds by power point slideshow.
Throughout the presentation, students will construct the many different sounds “EA” can make.
The graphics are used to facilitate guessing the meaning of the new words.
At the middle of the lesson, students have to answer the first activity in word process followed by presentation then activity.
The last activity as evaluation, with matching words containing the same sound of “a”.
Assessing students after doing the last evaluation then answer posttest in word process.
Teacher should note if student having any difficulties with any sound.
At the end of the lesson, students showed me their desire to comment on the lesson, indicating the way of teaching and some difficulties faced them.
One student commented, “This is a good way of teaching even there is no prior
knowledge about it”
Another student
said “computer learning isn’t difficult, but when
you have to deal with computer for the first time, you feel uncertain and a
little confused”.
Other student’s
comments on the techniques “ learning English
through computer is interesting and fine”.
Performance analysis results:
Here we need to compare students’ performance before and after presenting the lesson.
Some students deal effectively with computer, while others feel confused because they couldn’t deal with computer. This level took addition time to explain to them how to print and do activities; they took little time and felt refreshed.
Some students pointed with their fingers to the screen and the rarely use the mouse to do so, once and twice I had gained their attention so as to point using the mouse.
Most of the students failed to do drag and drop from first time, but they use to try and try once and twice. So as to make them practice well I showed them individually how to make drop and drag then asked them to do as I showed them.
According to contents’ performance some students copied answers from others and some of them frightened to write down their answers afraid to be evaluating.
Research matrix:
Questions Informal
discussion
Observation Test
|
Computers facilitate learning if learners have prior knowledge about it. |
ü |
ü |
|
|
The ability to use the existing knowledge through the posttest. |
|
ü |
ü |
|
The instructional design of the lesson help students to transfer through the parts of the lesson. |
ü |
ü |
|
|
To what extend did students were able to use computer properly. |
|
ü |
ü |
|
Computerized test was an acceptable technique among learners. |
ü |
ü |
ü |
|
Computer could be an obstacle against learning when learners ignored how to use it. |
ü |
ü |
ü |
Project instruments:
This had been done through three instruments included:
Informal discussion:
Through this instrument that considered as an easy method I collected most important information without make student suffer from writing and understanding questionnaire and complex questions.
Here, students had explained their real attitudes towards the material, without suffering from expressions in writing.
They explained to me their desire to continue learning with computer and asked to design many subject on that way.
v Test:
It is successful tool in measuring prior and existing knowledge, this include tow types of tests, pretest and posttest by using computerized tests.
The goal of this test is to assess knowledge of the final objectives.
Student would answer them by typing their answers that had been saved in separate files.
v The questions for the pretest are:
1. Types down words contain the pattern “ea”.
2. From the previous words select that have the similar sound.
3. How many sounds do you think “ea” can make in English?
v The questions for the post test include:
1. Type two words for each of the following sound;
E e R er A
Observation:
This instruments I used to assess performance that failed to be measured by both informal discussion and tests.
By observation students show the real performance without lying, I can watch their work, the difficulties faced them and touch the places of weakness.
Findings: the most important findings that I had achieved are that:
q Instructional design attracts learners’ attention.
q Things that easily worked are students’ ability to make typing, and easy transference through slides.
q Students confused when asked to deal with computer when they ignore using it.
q Students prefer computerized tests rather than traditional tests.
q Although computer facilitates learning, it stands across application this program.
q Not every school ready to carry out this program because of the lacks of computers in these schools.
Things that don’t work are files contain right and wrong responses, also students found some difficulty to deal with drop and drag technique.
In coming event I had to make some stress on
q Slide of objectives and it should be after title page.
q Using sound in presenting the lesson.
If some one else had done this program I will recommend with:
q Make some stress on using sound through the lesson to make more attention on the lesson.
q Give students separate event in computer skills explaining to them how to deal with things that they would be needed through lesson such as drop and drag, saving files.
If I had to use this event again I will keep using; graphics, same target population level, computerized tests, assessments activities, and finally the same design.
Research question 1:
Computers facilitate learning if learners have prior knowledge about it.
The instrument that yielded the best information to answer this question was informal discussions, observations.
Through informal discussion students showed their frustration from ignoring using computer.
One student mention that “computer is very interesting tool but we prefer if we have some knowledge about it”.
Another student mention that”…but we feel little confused about dealing with computer”.
Through observation I extracted that student were dealing with the text but found some troubles in dealing with computer.
It would seem then that the success ness of the instructional design used in the lesson, depends basically on how using computer. So commuters facilitate learning if learners able to deal with.
Research question 2:
The ability to use the existing knowledge through the
posttest.
The instrument that yielded the best information to answer this question was tests.
Through pretest student showed were ignorant for the number of sounds that “ea” can make and also they ignore what is meant by “ea” pattern.
Through posttest there is an observed improvement in their results that explained as follows.
Students degrees in both pretest and post test:
|
Student name |
Pretest |
Post test |
|
·
Opiti John ·
Mary Madut
·
Christina
Michael ·
Gano
Steven ·
James Kosa ·
Jameela
Ali |
%12 %22 %18 %10 %30 %20 |
%79 %85 %80 %70 %90 %65 |
The degrees of posttest show that there is a noticed decrease in information achieved through lesson.
It would seem then that, making post-test enabled me as researcher to investigate the amount of information achieved by students.
Research
question 3:
The instructional design of the lesson help students to transfer through parts of the lesson.
The instrument that yielded the best information to answer this question was informal discussions and observations.
Through observation I found that most of students deal easily with the lesson’s parts. They easily transfer from one lesson to another.
Through informal discussion it was found that learners encourage this style of designing lessons. One of them recommended “I can easily move from the first section to the following section without losing continuation of the lesson”.
It would seem then that learners accepted the standard of designing the lesson
Research question 4:
To what extend did students were able to use computer properly.
The instrument that yielded the best information to answer this question was observation.
Through observation I noticed that all of students were disable to use computer properly and from time to another they asking for help.
Also I noticed that there are many students pointing with their fingers to the screen and rarely use the mouse to point to a word or sentence, this showed the less experienced students in computer skills.
It would seem then that, students were able less to use computer so they needed teacher guidance.
Research question5:
Computerized test was an acceptable technique among
learners.
The instrument that yielded the best information to answer this question was test.
Through tests I found that students after showed how to print their answers through computer they liked this way in answering questions also every student was busy with his own answers and give more attention to the questions
It would seem then that, learners can deal with computerized tests and they can make some improvement in computer skills.
Research question 6:
Computer could be an obstacle against learning when
learners ignored how to use it.
The instrument that yielded the best information to answer this question was observation and informal discussions.
Through observation I noticed that some of students felt little confused when they don’t know how to solve a problem related to computer .one student commented, “learning with computer is interesting but we don’t know how to use computer”. Another one commented “learning with computer is likely good if we can deal with computer”
It would seem
then that, while computer enhance learning; it stands as a great obstacle
across learning when learners ignored computer’s basic skills.
Conclusions
When the above findings are considered the following conclusions can be made.
Conclusion 1
Computer considered as the most important tool to a plicate this event in teaching. Putting in our minds importance of dealing within computer.
Conclusion 2
Posttest gives us positive indication that the amount of information achieved by the students is observable and they are developing in their performance.
Conclusion 3
Easy transference through the lesson makes students engaged with the sections of the lesson, and keep continuation of the lesson this was made by good instructional design.
Conclusion 4
Students’ failure to use computer properly unless they have guidance from me, that took more time to solve this problem this was the most terrible obstacle.
Conclusion5
Learners
accepted answering tests as computerized tests, and they liked that considering
it as an easy way of answering questions.
Conclusion6
Ignorance of using computer leads to confusion among learners. Also they felt terrible because solving such problem make them less attention.
Recommendations
Based the table below shows the recommendations that arise from the conclusions above.
From the table we can see that the most important conclusions relate to …
Conclusion |
Recommendation |
|
Computer as important tool in teaching |
· There should be enough numbers of computers in schools. · Learners should be able to make practice for computer in order to feel familiarized within computer. · Never make application of instructional design lesson without be sure that students knew even basics of computer related to the lesson. |
|
Posttest as evaluated tool for existing knowledge. |
|
|
Importance of easy transference through lesson. |
|
|
Students’ failure in using computer. |
|
|
Ignorance of using computer leads to confusion among learners. |
|
From the above tale it can be seen that the most important recommendations relate to
In spite of the importance of using computer learners were enable to deal with.
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