FUNCTIONS - Although there is no clear function of vanadium in the body it does seem to have therapeutic effects.
  THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS - Vanadium supplementation has been shown to have a blood glucose controlling effect in human diabetics and animal models of diabetes (186, 187).  Vanadium treatment has been shown to lead to weight loss, normalization of blood lipid and blood insulin levels (188, 189). 

Molybdenum
  FUNCTIONS -  There are a number of human enzymes which have molybdenum as a cofactor.  These enzymes are involved in sulfur and detoxification reactions (190).
  THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS - Molybdenum may be beneficial for patients sensitive to sulfites, especially asthmatics (191).  Molybdenum has also been shown to be helpful in treating vague aches and pains (192).  Molybdenum deficiency has been associated with esophageal cancer in both humans and animals (193).    

DIGESTIVE AIDS
General
  The process of digestion has mainly been studied as part of good gastrointestinal health, yet good digestion is an often neglected part of total
nutrition.   The process of chemically digesting  (hydrolysis) foodstuffs is necessary for good macronutrient absorption,  good micronutrient absorption and to keep the GI tract healthy.  Poorly digested macronutrients may not only contribute to possible food allergies (194), but may also lead to immune or inflammatory reactions in the GI tract and poorly impact absorption (195).  If GI tract health is compromised then total health is compromised.
   The GI tract has two other functions besides digestion; selective absorption and defending again foreign substances from entering the systemic circulation (196).  This last function of the GI tract is poorly recognized, but may be as critical to overall health as its well-known function in digestion and absorption.  The GI tract contains more immune functioning cells than all the rest of the body (197).   Therefore, the GI tract is considered to have both a mechanical (non-immune) and immunological barrier.  A healthy gut will allow certain substances to be selectively absorbed (i.e. move through the GI barriers) while excluding unwanted substances (e.g foreign proteins, such as poorly digested food proteins).   Digestive aids in the AMC formula can help ensure proper functioning of all aspects of the GI tract and thereby are a crucial component of a complete multinutrient supplement.  It is now clear that optimum nutrition, in fact optimum health requires optimum digestion and absorption.
  An important chemical for good protein digestion is stomach HCl.  Although HCl does not directly lead to protein hydrolysis it is important to optimize the action of proteolytic enzymes secreted from the stomach and pancreas.  In the stomach HCl acts to denature (or liquify proteins) and enhances the action of the stomach proteolytic enzyme, pepsin by maintaining an acid environment in which pepsin works its best (198).  The amount of HCl mixed in with the food as it moves into the small intestine is critical in stimulating release of a hormone (secretin).  Secretin stimulates the pancreas to release an electrolyte solution which contains bicarbonate ion and a variety of minerals.  The bicarbonate is used to buffer the acidic chyme from the stomach and optimize the enzyme activity of all pancreatic enzymes and the minerals are needed as cofactors for the enzymes to function (199).  Clearly HCL is an important component of good digestion, yet numerous pracitioners running Heildelberg tests (testing for HCl levels) have shown that most Americans over forty have low, not high stomach HCl levels (200).  A variety of vague symptoms of indigestion including bloating, cramping, and abdominal pain can be due to low  HCl (201).  

Betaine HCl
  FUNCTIONS - Betaine HCl is a readily soluble form of betaine, a substance which is considered to be important for the proper production of carnitine (202).  Adequate carnitine is absolutely necessary for the proper oxidation of fats (fatty acids) to provide fuel to highly active tissues such as the heart (203).
    HCl has a variety of functions within the stomach.  Besides its functions in digestion described above adequate stomach HCl is an important part of the non-immunological GI barrier.  Stomach pH levels are 1 to 2 when no food is in the stomach.  This extremely acidic environment is considered protective against GI infections  (204).
  THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS - Betaine may be helpful in the treatment of atherosclerosis when the person has high blood homocysteine levels (205).  Supplemental HCl has been shown to help treat Giardia (206).

Glutamic acid HCl
  FUNCTIONS - Glutamic acid HCL is a readily available form of glutamic acid, an amino acid.  This amino acid can be readily converted to glutamine by the addition of a nitrogen containing group known as an amine.  Glutamine has a variety of functions in the body.  In a certain situations glutamine can be considered a conditionally essential amino acid (207).  Glutamine is now known to be crucial to optimum GI health since it is considered the main fuel source for enterocytes (cells of the small intestine)  (208).  Glutamine is also considered to be the main fuel source for immune functioning cells (white blood cells) (209).  Recall that for the GI tract to perform all of its necessary functions the guts immune system (GALT = gut associated lymphoid tissue) must also be functioning properly.
  THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS -  A number of studies have shown that GI tract recovery following abdominal surgery is greatly improved with the addition of glutamine to parental solutions (210).  Glutamine supplementation can also improve a GI tract that is too permeable, i.e. too many unwanted substances are being absorbed (211).


Bromelain
  FUNCTIONS -  Bromelain is a protein found in greatest abundance in the stems of pineapples.  This protein has proteolytic activity and can help with proper protein digestion. 
  THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS - Numerous studies have reported excellent results using bromelain as an anti-inflammatory (212, 213)  Apparently some bromelain can actually get absorbed from the GI tract and help digest peptides involved in inflammation.  Bromelain has been used sucessfully in the treatment of sprains and strains (214).

Papain
  FUNCTIONS -  This proteolytic enzyme is high in papayas.  It can facilitate more complete protein digestion.
  THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS -  Papain may be especially important to promote complete digestion of the components of wheat.  Gluten is one of the main wheat proteins and can be digested by papain (215).  This specific digestive action of papain may help people who react to wheat (i.e. Celiac disease is an extreme example of someone allergic to wheat) be able to now tolerate eating wheat.