Chapter 32   An Introduction to Animal Diversity

Lecture Outline

Overview: Welcome to Your Kingdom

·        Biologists have identified 1.3 million living species of animals.

·        Estimates of the total number of animal species run far higher, from 10 to 20 million to as many as 100 to 200 million.

 

Concept 32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic layers

·        There are exceptions to nearly every criterion for distinguishing an animal from other life forms.

·        However, five criteria, taken together, comprise a reasonable definition.

1.     Animals are multicellular, ingestive heterotrophs.

°        Animals take in preformed organic molecules through ingestion, eating other organisms or organic material that is decomposing.

2.     Animal cells lack cell walls that provide structural support for plants and fungi.

°        The multicellular bodies of animals are held together by extracellular structural proteins, especially collagen.

°        Animals have other unique types of intercellular junctions, including tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions, which hold tissues together.

§        These junctions are also composed of structural proteins.

3.     Animals have two unique types of cells: nerve cells for impulse conduction and muscle cells for movement.

4.     Most animals reproduce sexually, with the diploid stage usually dominating the life cycle.

°        In most species, a small flagellated sperm fertilizes a larger, nonmotile egg.

°        The zygote undergoes cleavage, a succession of mitotic cell divisions, leading to the formation of a multicellular, hollow ball of cells called the blastula.

°        During gastrulation, part of the embryo folds inward, forming layers of embryonic tissues that will develop into adult body parts.

§        The resulting development stage is called a gastrula.

°        Some animals develop directly through transient stages into adults, but others have a distinct larval stage or stages.

°        A larva is a sexually immature stage that is morphologically distinct from the adult, usually eats different foods, and may live in a different habitat from the adult.

°        Animal larvae eventually undergo metamorphosis, transforming the animal into an adult.

5.     Animals share a unique homeobox-containing family of genes known as Hox genes.

°        All eukaryotes have genes that regulate the expression of other genes.

§        Many of these regulatory genes contain common modules of DNA sequences called homeoboxes.

§        All animals share the unique family of Hox genes, suggesting that this gene family arose in the eukaryotic lineage that gave rise to animals.

°        Hox genes play important roles in the development of animal embryos, regulating the expression of dozens or hundreds of other genes.

§        Hox genes control cell division and differentiation, producing different morphological features of animals.

°        Hox genes in sponges regulate the formation of channels, the primary feature of sponge morphology.

°        In more complex animals, the Hox gene family underwent further duplication.

§        In bilaterians, Hox genes regulate patterning of the anterior-posterior axis.

§        The same conserved genetic network governs the development of a large range of animals.

 

Concept 32.2 The history of animals may span more than a billion years

·        Various studies suggest that animals began to diversify more than a billion years ago.

·        Some calculations based on molecular clocks estimate that the ancestors of animals diverged from the ancestors of fungi as much as 1.5 billion years ago.

·        Similar studies suggest that the common ancestor of living animals lived 1.2 billion to 800 million years ago.

·        The common ancestor was probably a colonial flagellated protist and may have resembled modern choanoflagellates.

Neoproterozoic Era (1 billion–542 million years ago)

·        Although molecular data indicates a much earlier origin of animals, the oldest generally accepted animal fossils are only 575 million years old.

°        These fossils are known as the Ediacara fauna, named for the Ediacara Hills of Australia.

°        Ediacara fauna consist primarily of cnidarians, but soft-bodied mollusks were also present, and numerous fossilized burrows and tracks indicate the presence of worms.

Paleozoic Era (542–251 million years ago)

·        Animals underwent considerable diversification between 542–525 million years ago, during the Cambrian period of the Paleozoic Era.

°        During this period, known as the Cambrian explosion, about half of extant animal phyla arose.

°        Fossils of Cambrian animals include the first animals with hard, mineralized skeletons.

·        There are several hypotheses regarding the cause of the Cambrian explosion.

1.     The new predator-prey relationships that emerged in the Cambrian may have generated diversity through natural selection.

°        Predators acquired adaptations that helped them catch prey.

°        Prey acquired adaptations that helped them resist predation.

2.     A rise of atmospheric oxygen preceded the Cambrian explosion.

°        More oxygen may have provided opportunities for animals with higher metabolic rates and larger body sizes.

3.     The evolution of the Hox complex provided the developmental flexibility that resulted in variations in morphology.

°        These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; all may have played a role.

·        In the Silurian and Devonian periods, animal diversity continued to increase, punctuated by episodes of mass extinction.

°        Vertebrates (fishes) became the top predators of marine food webs.

·        By 460 million years ago, arthropods began to adapt to terrestrial habitats.

·        Vertebrates moved to land about 360 million years ago and diversified into many lineages.

°        Two of these survive today: amphibians and amniotes.

Mesozoic Era (251–65.5 million years ago)

·        Few new animal body plans emerged among animals during the Mesozoic era.

·        Animal phyla began to spread into new ecological niches.

·        In the oceans, the first coral reefs formed.

·        On land, birds, pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and tiny nocturnal insect-eating mammals arose.

Cenozoic Era (65.5 million years ago to the present)

·        Insects and flowering plants both underwent a dramatic diversification during the Cenozoic era.

·        This era began with mass extinctions of terrestrial and marine animals.

·        Among the groups of species that disappeared were large, nonflying dinosaurs and the marine reptiles.

·        Large mammalian herbivores and carnivores diversified as mammals exploited vacated ecological niches.

·        Some primate species in Africa adapted to open woodlands and savannas as global climates cooled.

°        Our ancestors were among these grassland apes.

 

Concept 32.3 Animals can be characterized by “body plans”

·        Zoologists may categorize the diversity of animals by general features of morphology and development.

·        A group of animal species that share the same level of organizational complexity is called a grade.

°        Certain body-plan features shared by a group of animals define a grade.

1.     Animals can be categorized according to the symmetry of their bodies.

°        Sponges lack symmetry.

°        Some animals, such as sea anemones, have radial symmetry.

°        Many animals have bilateral symmetry.

§        A bilateral animal has a dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom side), a left and right side, and an anterior (head) end and a posterior (tail) end.

°        Linked with bilateral symmetry is cephalization, an evolutionary trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment on the anterior end.

§        Cephalization also includes the development of a central nervous system concentrated in the head and extending toward the tail as a longitudinal nerve cord.

°        The symmetry of an animal generally fits its lifestyle.

§        Many radial animals are sessile or planktonic and need to meet the environment equally well from all sides.

§        Animals that move actively are generally bilateral.

à       Their central nervous system allows them to coordinate complex movements involved in crawling, burrowing, flying, and swimming.

2.     The animal body plans also vary according to the organization of the animal’s tissues.

°        True tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from other tissues.

§        Sponges lack true tissues.

§        In all other animals, the embryo becomes layered through the process of gastrulation.

°        As development progresses, germ layers, concentric layers of embryonic tissue, form various tissues and organs.

§        Ectoderm, covering the surface of the embryo, gives rise to the outer covering and, in some phyla, to the central nervous system.

§        Endoderm, the innermost layer, lines the developing digestive tube, or archenteron, and gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract and the organs derived from it, such as the liver and lungs of vertebrates.

°        Animals with only two germ layers, such as cnidarians, are diploblastic.

°        Other animals are triploblastic and have three germ layers.

§        In these animals, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, lies between the endoderm and ectoderm.

§        The mesoderm develops into the muscles and most other organs between the digestive tube and the outer covering of the animal.

3.     The Bilateria can be divided by the presence or absence of a body cavity (a fluid-filled space separating the digestive tract from the outer body wall) known as a coelom and by the structure of the body cavity.

°        A true coelom forms from tissue derived from mesoderm.

§        The inner and outer layers of tissue that surround the coelom connect dorsally and ventrally and form mesenteries that suspend the internal organs.

§        Animals that possess a true coelom are known as coelomates.

°        Some triploblastic animals have a cavity formed from blastocoel, rather than mesoderm. Such a cavity is a “pseudocoel” and animals that have one are called pseudocoelomates.

°        Some animals lack a coelom. These animals are known as acoelomates, and have a solid body without a body cavity.

°        A body cavity has many functions.

§        Its fluid cushions the internal organs, helping to prevent internal injury.

§        The noncompressible fluid of the body cavity can function as a hydrostatic skeleton against which muscles can work.

§        The presence of a cavity enables the internal organs to grow and move independently of the outer body wall.

§        Current research suggests that true coeloms and pseudocoels have evolved many times in the course of animal evolution.

à       Thus, the terms coelomate and pseudocoelomate refer to grades, not clades.

4.     Most animals can be categorized as having one of two developmental modes: protostome development or deuterostome development.

°        The differences between these modes of development center on cleavage pattern, coelom formation, and blastopore fate.

°        Many protostomes undergo spiral cleavage, in which planes of cell division are diagonal to the vertical axis of the embryo.

§        Some protostomes also show determinate cleavage, where the fate of each embryonic cell is determined early in development.

°        Many deuterostomes undergo radial cleavage in which the cleavage planes are parallel or perpendicular to the vertical egg axis.

§        Most deuterostomes show indeterminate cleavage, whereby each cell in the early embryo retains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo.

·        In gastrulation, the developing digestive tube of an embryo initially forms as a blind pouch, the archenteron.

°        As the archenteron forms in a protostome, solid masses of mesoderm split to form the coelomic cavities, in a pattern called schizocoelous development.

°        In deuterostomes, mesoderm buds off from the wall of the archenteron and hollows to become the coelomic cavities, in a pattern called enterocoelous development.

·        The third difference centers on the fate of the blastopore, the opening of the archenteron.

°        In many protostomes, the blastopore develops into the mouth, and a second opening at the opposite end of the gastrula develops into the anus.

°        In deuterostomes, the blastopore usually develops into the anus, and the mouth is derived from the secondary opening.

 

 

Concept 32.4 Leading hypotheses agree on major features of the animal phylogenetic tree

·        Zoologists currently recognize about 35 animal phyla.

°        The relationships between these phyla continue to be debated.

·        Traditionally, zoologists have tested hypotheses about animal phylogeny through morphological studies.

·        Currently, zoologists also study the molecular systematics of animals.

·        New studies of lesser-known phyla and fossil analyses help distinguish between ancestral and derived traits in various animal groups.

·        Modern phylogenetic systematics is based on the identification of clades, monophyletic sets of taxa defined by shared derived features unique to those taxa and their common ancestor.

°        This creates a phylogenetic tree that is a hierarchy of clades nested within larger clades.

·        Defining the shared derived characteristics is key to a particular hypothesis.

°        Whether the data are “traditional” morphological characters, “new” molecular sequences, or some combination of the two, the assumptions and inferences inherent in the tree are the same.

·        Two current phylogenetic hypotheses can be compared: one based on systematic analyses of morphological characters and the other based on recent molecular studies.

·        The hypotheses agree on the following major features of animal phylogeny.

1.     All animals share a common ancestor.

°        Both trees indicate that the animal kingdom is monophyletic, representing a clade called Metazoa.

2.     Sponges are basal animals.

°        Sponges branch from the base of both animal trees.

°        They exhibit a parazoan grade of organization, without tissues.

°        Recent molecular analyses suggest that sponges are paraphyletic.

3.     Eumetazoa is a clade of animals with true tissues.

°        All animals except sponges belong to a clade of eumetazoans.

°        The common ancestor of living eumetazoans acquired true tissues.

4.     Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria.

°        Bilateral symmetry is a shared derived character that helps to define a clade called the bilaterians.

5.     Vertebrates and some other phyla belong to the clade Deuterostomia.

°        The name deuterostome refers to an animal development grade and also to a clade that includes vertebrates.

·        The hypotheses also disagree on some significant points, including the relationships among the bilaterians.

·        The morphology-based tree divides the bilaterians into two clades: deuterostomes and protostomes.

°        This assumes that these two modes of development reflect a phylogenetic pattern.

·        The molecular evidence assigns two sister taxa to the protostomes: the ecdysozoans and the lophotrochozoans.

·        The name Ecdysozoa (nematodes, arthropods, and other phyla) refers to animals that secrete external skeletons (exoskeleton).

°        As the animal grows, it molts the old exoskeleton and secretes a new, larger one, a process called ecdysis.

°        While named for this process, the clade is actually defined mainly by molecular evidence.

·        The name Lophotrochozoa refers to two characteristic features of animals in this clade.

°        Some animals, such as ectoprocts, develop a lophophore, a horseshoe-shaped crown of ciliated tentacles used for feeding.

°        Other phyla, including annelids and mollusks, have a distinctive larval stage called a trochophore larva.

·        Animal systematics continues to evolve.

·        Systematists are now conducting large-scale analyses of multiple genes across a wide range of animal phyla, in an effort to gain a clearer picture of how the diversity of animal body plans arose.