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Black Warriors
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thanks to
Bob Shepherd
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Black Warriors
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Kipling wrote of the unappreciated 'Tommy Atkins' - despised or held scarcely above outright contempt - UNTIL the nation needed him. Then he was the hero, the saviour, the man who stood in the gap, who came to his nation's rescue in its our of need. Another Kipling poem describes the despised 'Gunga Din' the brave dark fighters who shed their blood, gave their lives, on behalf of an empire that owed them better. And for Kipling, the white professional soldiers could only say in awe, "You're a better man than I am, Gunga Din."
But in America's case, its Black warriors were not foreign, they were home born and every bit as American as their brother warriors of lighter hue. At long last, America is waking to the glory of "the darker brother" on the field of battle. Just as has been shown in other fields of achievement, perhaps beginning with America's unique homegrown religious heritage, the black contribution has been profound.
The original core of this document was begun by Professor Cunnea as a homework aid for his classes. A note to researchers of "Buffalo Soldiers" -- the Buffalo Soldiers were African-Americans used in the U.S. war to protect settlers not only against brigands but also (primarily) against certain Native Americans. The web has numerous sites on the Buffalo Soldiers but please be aware, while the Buffalo Soldiers spoke American English, and tended to think somewhat similar to the "white" Americans, history reveals that they also shared the prejudices against socalled marauding "red men." You should be aware of this.
The first Buffalo Soldiers were the 9th and 10th Cavalries, formed by the U.S. Army in 1866 and mostly composed of freed slaves and Civil War vets. The patrolled the Mexican border, participated in the Spanish-American War, and in the U.S. expedition to the Philippines. While it is regrettable that black Americans should have participated in military actions adversely affecting native peoples, students should remember that not all the reprisals and measures taken by the government were unprovoked, nor were all of them carried out with the ruthlessness we sometimes hear of. Buffalo soldiers and black cowboys were merely one factor in the opening of the West, and a certain toughness went with the territory. It was a job somebody had to do, and the oppressive aspects, while not excusable whatsoever, were indeed one part of that history. The Buffalo Soldiers were disbanded in the 1950's when President Harry Truman integrated the armed forces. A television movie called "Buffalo Soldiers" starring Danny Glover was made in 1997 and may be available to students on video. It aired on TNT. Set in New Mexico Territory in 1880, it is a fictionalized account of the conflicts between the Buffalo Soldiers and the Native Americans then `plaguing` the pioneers westward.
Texts in African American History - In their own words: everyone from Revolutionary War soldiers to Malcolm X.
African Americans in the Military - historical perspective :: covering all time-frames and wars
National Minority Military Museum Foundation - African American (and other groups) neglected role in the heroic defense of America and her freedoms. It's about time the story is told.
All-American Success Story - widespread African American career triumph emerging in the United States Armed Services.
Black Americans in Defense of Our Nation - a heroic story that deserves to be told.
Negro Army Units: covering 1866 - 1950 - an enumeration of many of the black units, in particular those fighting in the period of World War I and World War II.
REAL African American Heroes - dedicated to all African Americans who over the years have made a difference. Focus is military history, Medal of Honor, Distinctions of Valor and heroism. Also notable black Astronauts, and others.
General Colin Powell - The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs exhorts American heroes of today.
Another black veteran at Bunker Hill was Barzillai Lew, who had first served in the French and Indian War as a Pepperell enlistee in a Massachusetts company. The historian Quarles says that most noteworthy of all was Salem Poor. So exceptional was Poor's conduct that fourteen officers sent to the legislature a petition of his behalf. According to their statement, Poor 'behaved like an experienced officer, as well as an excellent soldier.' Poor later served at Valley Forge and White Plains. To the south, Virginia had its Salem Poor in the person of William Flora of Portsmouth. Serving with the local militia in the Battle of Great Bridge, free Negro William Flora was the last sentinel to leave his post as the enemy approached. Withdrawing amidst a shower of shot, Flora returned fire eight times. Also of note was the participation of Black men in the battles of both Lexington and Concord, among them Pomp Blackman, who later served in the Continental Army, and Prince Estabrook, a casualty.
Proclamation for Freedom: African Americans in the Revolution
The Revolution's Black Soldiers - Robert A. Selig's article. It was George Washington himself who opened the door for black participation in his general orders of January 12, 1777, in which he instructed recruiters to "enlist none but Freemen," the implication being that the recruit could be black just as long as he was free.
Royal Ethiopian Regiment - The British Royal Governor of Virginia issued a declaration in 1775 that any enslaved black person or indentured white person "or others" (probably referring to Native American slaves) who could bear arms and would agree to fight to preserve British rule over the American colonies would immediately be freed. Enough black men volunteered to create several units. They were promised farms as payment, which were never given. Most famous of these soldiers is Thomas Peters, who later went on to found a town in Sierra Leone.
Blacks in the American Revolution - The Revolution gave blacks a chance to assert their drive for freedom. While the Revolution did not emancipate them, it united them in their belief of freedom and laid the foundation for the future, distant thought that might be.
African Americans in Early U.S. Military History - Black heroes have participated in military conflicts since the colonial period. In colonial conflicts and the War for Independence, black men served in militia units and the Continental Army. [Bryan Rommel-Ruiz]
Crispus Attucks - First hero of the Revolution. On the night of 5 March 1770 a merchant seaman and escaped slave became the first hero of the Revolution. Attucks undertook to be, as John Adams calls him, a "hero of the night," leading a mini-army of Bostonians in confronting the British troops. Unarmed but for rocks, sticks, and epithets, they followed the inspired Attucks right to the soldiers. Attucks had, in Adams' words, "hardiness enough to fall in upon them, and with one [bare] hand took hold of a bayonet, and with the other, knocked the man down." The panicked British shot him down, along with four of his followers. Another Crispus Attucks resource.
Peter Salem - Shot and killed British Commander. Major John Pitcairn, leader of Redcoats in the Battle of Bunker Hill, was shot and killed by African American (former slave) Peter Salem. Stamp issued in commemoration (painter John Trumbull)
In regular service for the United States of America, over 200,000 African Americans served, with 38,000 recorded as killed. Total participation on behalf of flag and country was easily over a quarter of a million. The valor and effectiveness of these men in the final year and a half of the war was so stunning that Lincoln was compelled to say they were the pivotal decisive factor in victory. As if to underscore Lincoln's realization of the potent performance of the black fighting man, the confederacy in the closing weeks of the war, passed a law calling for the training of an even larger number of BLACK SOLDIERS --- (300,000). This law was signed by Jefferson Davis on March 13, 1865.
In fact, of regular recorded engagements, Union blacks fought in 449 battles, almost entirely as members of all-black units. Altogether, there were 166 all-black units -- 145 regiments of infantry, 7 cavalry regiments, 12 heavy artillery regiments, 1 light artillery regiment, and 1 regiment of light artillery. While there were VERY few black officers in these regiments over all, the fact is that there were 75 Blacks who obtained commissions, including 8 doctors. There were 22 African-Americans winning the Medal of Honor, the nation's highest decoration.
Benjamin Quarles reports that 29,000 blacks served in the federal Navy during the Civil War, and they were treated fairly well, he says, sharing quarters and mess with the whites, as well as having some opportunity for promotion. Four of these black men won the Navy Medal of Honor. Perhaps the best known of these was Joachim Pease, loader of the number one gun on the Kearsarge. One of fifteen black sailors on board this warship when she met the most famous of the Confederate raiders, the Alabama, Pease was cited by his superior officer as having shown the utmost in courage and fortitude.
In one of history's strange oddities, the "First casualty" of the Civil War (at Harper's Ferry) was one Shepherd Hayward, a free southern black man and the baggage master at Harper's Ferry. Shepherd Hayward was a former slave who had earned his freedom, then purchased the freedom of his wife and children. Confronting Brown's posse, he wound up becoming the first casualty of the Civil War. He was shot when he went to investigate the furtive movements of the men in John Brown's party. By an irony of history, Shepherd Hayward was shot and killed by Dangerfield Newby, one of John Brown's followers (and also a black man) whose fondest hope was to rescue his wife and seven children still held in slavery. See Leonard Ehrlich's book on John Brown, God's Angry Man. The Zeal of a fanatic?
An inscription at Harper's Ferry states that Shepherd exemplified "trhe character and faithfulness of thousands of Negroes who, under so many temptations throughout subsequent years of war, so conducted themselves that no stain was left upon a record which is the peculiar heritage of the American people and an everlasting tribute to the best of both races."
See Dudley Randall's famous poem "Memorial Wreath," in which he pays tribute to all the African American soldiers who served their country in this war between brothers. For Booker T. Washington's immortal Heroes in Black Skins from eText.
The African American Civil War
Memorial in Boston -
An explanation of the Black Heritage Trail in Boston and the Black Civil War memorial to the famous 54th Civil War regiment. The 54th Massachusetts Infantryis best known to modern students as the subject of the
movie Glory.
John Brown, courage and character, valor and sacrifice - John Brown went boldly to the gallows of shame while Robert E. Lee looked on stoically. Like the Europeans who later defied Hitler to attempt to rescue innocent lives, John Brown dared everything in order to lift the stain on America's soul --- the stain of slavery.
Isabella Baumfree, (Sojourner Truth) This amazing woman, called the Libyan Sibyl by Harriet Beecher Stowe (for her uncanny "sixth sense") had an almost prophetic ability to discern dangers, responsible for the deliverance of hundreds of slaves from bondage.
Sergeant William Carney CMH -
First African American fighting man to be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. Serving under Robert G. Shaw, Carney lay a few feet from where his commander (Shaw) fell. Summoning all of his strength, Carney held aloft the colors and continued the charge. Having been shot several times, he kept the colors flying high, and miraculously retreated his regiments.
National Park Service African-American Civil War Sites -
Exactly what it says it is! Nicely illustrated with portraits of Black
soldiers and political leaders of the Civil War, and good explanations of
important units and battlefields.
The Other Side - Blacks who fought for the Confederacy - a much neglected fact about the Men in Gray. Blacks fought for the stars and bars, and at the end it was made official, at the firm behest of Robert E. Lee.
A New Look at the Old South: Beyond "Gone With the Wind" - Complexities and nuances abound, and plenty of outright contradictions. Violence and unexpected kindness. Co-operation and grief as well as tender affection. Some ironies of rednecks and southerners of every color and heritage. A story of love amidst the ruins.
Eastman's Ride to Liberty - the song of a people's history - when sheer survival becomes a story of the loftiest heroism. Here are the makings of an epic for all time. Here are ingredients for a glorious story not yet told. A grand epic of world historical significance no less inspiring than the Exodus Of Moses, and surely ranking with Homer's tales, the Bhagavad-Gita of the Mah�bh�rata, or the Sumerian Gilgamesh.
Powhatan Beaty - courageous Union hero - at last receiving recognition in his native Virginia. He loved America foremost, even fighting against the land of his birth and his former friends and superiors. His heroism and gallantry won accolades of admiration from the testimony of the white fellow soldiers who witnessed it. And grudging acknowledgment from confederates.
Robert Smalls - black hero known for incredible exploit of bravery in his leadership of a group of slaves who gained control of the Confederate ship Planter. Other naval or merchant marine heroes of African heritage during this time have been memorialized in increasing books, articles, movies, websites, and even some public monuments now erected.
Between Two Fires: Black Soldiers in the Civil War by
Joyce Hansen
Published by: Watts Franklin,
1993. Black Americans were caught in the throes of a national angst, a battle for the heart and soul of the Union itself, testing the meanings of nation, identity, liberty, and survival. Their own role was played out in the very core of the conflict.
Indian Wars. Buffalo Soldiers. 1866-1890. Use of black soldiers was widespread in the west and numerous engagements demonstrated the valor and toughness of the African American fighters. Colonel Grierson insisted to his superiors that the identifyng term "Colored" - as originally prefixed before the title of the regiment - be dropped. He said it was demeaning and unnecessary, and ultimately, he prevailed.
Two all-black cavalry regiments saw considerable use (the 9th and 10th); And two all-black infantry regments were also much used (the 24th and 25th). Stuck with a thankless job, it fell to these Black freedmen to garrison forts, quell disturbances, and generally keep the peace, not infrequently being called to put lives on the line in the name of the United States government. During these wars in the west, heroes in black regiments won a total of twenty Medals of Honor. In 1875 one of these was Pompey Factor.
Portraits in Black-The
Buffalo Soldiers - (see note
above)
Black History (Underground
RR, Buffalo Soliders, etc) Lest We Forget - Bennie McRae's Tribute of Honor to a worthy breed of hero
Films
about Native Americans and Black Americans in US History
Black
Cowboys, Old Cowtown - Wichita honors some sturdy men
Pompey Factor, Medal of Honor in 1875, had fought earlier with Negro Seminole Indians "safe commander" - he distinguished himself on a campaign in Texas against the hostile Kiowas and Comanches. The Medal of Honor citation for his gallantry in 1875 cites an incident in which Factor, leading three other Indian Scouts at the "Eagle's Nest" at the Pecos River, participated in a charge of four Buffalo Soldiers against 25 hostile enemy, risking his life above and beyond the call of duty.
Mabel
Keaton Staupers - No time for Prejudice :: Black Nurse Integrates Army (scroll down)
Johnson Chestnut Whittaker - fighting racism, Whittaker was one of the first three African Americans to attend West Point, he dared to stand proud.
A Valiant Black Soldier, San Juan Hill - a print from NY Library Collection
A perfect hailstorm of bullets - A Black Sergeant Remembers the Battle of San Juan Hill (Frank Pullen)
The Negro in the Regular Army - Oswald Garrison Villard (etext sourced)
World War I and Post War society - The story of America's Black heroes in the Great War, they were true sons of freedom.
Vignettes and glimpses - Black soldiers and the sacrifices in the first world war. Focus on the 369th infantry.
The Call to the Colors (E.J. Scott's History) - relates to the 372nd Infantry in the Great War. Thanks to [email protected] (and her co-author Richard Ford).
First Hero of World War II -
When the battleship Arizona was first bombed at Pearl Harbor, Dorrie Miller ran to the flaming deck, where he was knocked down by another explosion. The captain was wounded and Miller dragged him to safety. Miller had never received any training, but he found an anti-aircraft gun, figured out how it worked, and, with bombs and strafing bursting around him, shot down four Japanese planes. Dorrie Miller was the first American hero of World War II.
Afro-American - This is Our War -
African-American newspaper presents a collection of its correspondents' coverage of WWII. Learn how black soldiers were treated in the war.
Lest We Forget - African Americans in World War II -
Tribute to African-American history features a section devoted to blacks in WWII. Find articles and links to related resources.
World War II and the Integration of the Armed Services - On 26 July 1948, President Harry S Truman signed Executive Order 9981, which set in motion the process resulting in the formal end of segregation of the US military in 1954.
Miracle at St. Anna - Information about the 92nd Infantry Division. These black warriors were World War II's Buffalo Soldiers
The Double V campaign - It wasn't treason. It was an all-American demand for justice, by men who were laying their lives on the line for the freedoms of all Americans, and the captive nations overseas.
An Advocate For Freedom - The Pittsburgh Courier during World War II, and the role of Double V in awakening political leadership to the urgency of redressing racial questions.
Vernon Baker - Medal of Honor finally awarded to one of the most gallant, most heroic Americans to fight against the Nazi's.
Blacks of the USS Mason - During World War II only one US Navy warship with an all African American crew saw combat. Overcoming racism at home and rough seas in the Atlantic, a dramatic story forgotten no more.
Medal of Honor - the Nation's highest military honor. Here's a list of African-Americans on whom this medal was bestowed.
World War II National Memorial - It is time to honor a generation's sacrifice.
Spanish-American
War
Spanish-American War. Black participation continued in the War with Spain both in Cuba and the Philippines. And again the valor and gallantry of African American fighting men was again on display. Sixteen regiments of black volunteers were recruited; four saw combat. Black heroes took part in the siege of Santiago and others assisted Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders in the charge on San Juan Hill. Especially notable Black participation occurred at engagements ranging from El Caney to Corrizal. Five black Americans won Congressional Medals of Honor in this "splendid little war," as TR a bit naively called it.
World War I
The Great War. A war in which the contributions of black heroes were badly needed, but the obstacles of racism were thrown in their paths. About 367,000 African Americans served in the American Armed Forces in this War, and of that number 100,000 served in France. The 93rd Division served side by side with the French and numerous awards were won, much to the consternation of certain white American generals. In fact, the first two Americans to win the coveted Croix de Guerre France's highest decoration) were black heroes Sgt Henry Johnson and Pvt Needham Roberts. In addition, an astounding 171 African Americans were awarded the French Legion of Honor.
World War II
World War II. Over a million African Americans served int the armed forces. all-black fighter and bomber AAF units and infantry divisions gave distinguished service. Numerous acts of heroism were recorded, and though not all duly honored, countless others have come to light. In fact, in the very opening hours of the attack on Pearl Harbor, no hero shone with greater brilliance than the valiant Dorrie Miller a messman on the USS Arizona who despite incredible risk and later injuries to himself, manned a machine gun and downed a confirmed four Jap war planes, and perhaps more. (By 1954, the US Armed Forces were completely desegregated.)
This was a segregated unit of paratroopers during WW II. Called the "Triple Nickel," some of them wore charms made of three buffalo nickels -- once again, buffalo soldiers! Due to their color, they were denied the opportunity to win medals and promotions in the European theater. Instead, they were assigned to highly dangerous "fire jumping" duty, putting out fires in the U.S. west. At the time, it was suspected that these dangerous brush and forest fires were being set by Japanese saboteurs.
After the war, the 555th was broken up and the men were distributed among white paratroop units. See the websites below for more and different information. If you're doing a web search, search "Triple Nickel" AND "Triple Nickle," since there's a lot of confusion out there as to the preferred spelling of nickel.
Triple Nickle: The 555th Parchute Infantry Association, Inc. - (wonderful logo)
555th Paratroopers -- still on a mission
Triple Nickel - Legacy of the 555th
Smoke Jumpers - the 555th Paratroop Battalion of World War II
Reminiscences 555th Paratroop Btn - one soldier shares with reporter
555th Parachute Infantry - Military history resource includes a detailed summary of the actions of the first all-black paratrooper company.
Triple Nickle - An Airborne Legacy (the 555th)
Black Paratrooper Remembers the 505th & 555th - (news story, very good!)
The Day The Color Barrier Fell - 555th Integrated The Army : (news story, very good!)
Chris Onyika's Tuskegee Tribute -- The Red Tail Heroes : does America care?
Tuskegee Airmen - by Afro-American Newspaper :: The Sky was the limit
Tuskegee Airmen - Discusses the flying pioneers who formed the all-African American 99th Pursuit Squadron. Find unit details, key members, and photos.
Tuskegee - Outlines the history and contributions of the first African-Americans to fly combat missions. Includes a time-line.
Black American Becomes a Fighting Airman - Resource provides a brief overview of the Tuskegee Flyers, also known as the "Lonely Eagles." Also peruse their combat record.
Tuskegee Airmen - The Black Redtail Angels - Review this tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen that includes a large collection of photographs and links to related books.
Black Patriots - Tuskeegee Airmen - African-American history resource features a brief overview of the decorated Air Force squadron that never lost a bomber they escorted.
Red Tail Project - Tuskegee Airmen - Resource devoted to the Red Tail Mustang features a detailed history of the 99th Fighter Squadron.
Wings of Honor - the story of the Tuskegee Airmen in World War II.
The notable African American involvement began right at the onset of hostilities. Just seventeen days after Soviet-armed communist soldiers invaded the Korean penninsula, the men of the 24th (all-black) infantry reached Korea from Japan, and immediately began a dramatic series of blows, forcing North Korean invaders back in one strategic defeat after another. Then on 22 July 1950, world headlines proclaimed the historic news that the first major victory of Korea was gained by the all-Black 24th infantry in the battle of Yech'on.
Black Combat Units in Korea - excellent site by David K. Carlisle.
Korea then and now : memoir of a black soldier - a small child born in the darkness & set opon a path in the middle of the forest (much more). By Curtis "Kojo" Morrow.
In elite combat units, the NY Times reported, one of every four combat troops is black.
The first Congressional Medal of Honor recipient was Milton Oliver, who gave his life to save his buddies, throwing himself on a grenade. He was only 19 years old. In the posthumous ceremony honoring him with the nation's highest medal for military valor, President Johnson cited Oliver for "conspicuous gallantry" above and beyond the call of duty.
Black Heroes in Southeast Asia - recipients of the Congressional Medal of Honor in Vietnam
Colin Powell - Powell as President? Who would consider such a thing? Here's one American who felt strongly that the General would have made an astonishingly good choice. Not only one of America's true heroes, but with sky high ratings in the "trust" department, Powell is the Conscience of the Republican Party.
Colin Powell - Before the Republican National Convention for the second time in a row as, yes, the Keynote Speaker, Colin Powell more than anyone else except Bush himself DEFINED the Philadelphia moment. If America's promise, as seen at Philadelphia, is kept --- it will have to be said that Powell certainly did much to set the tone of it.
Colin Powell - "Bought with their blood, the Freedoms We Enjoy." Colin Powell Salutes African American heroes and patriots throughout the history of our nation. An eloquent exhortation from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the United States Armed Services.
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