              FREEMASONRY AND THE LEADERS OF VICTORIAN ENGLAND

                        by  George B. Yeates, P.G.C.



    Freemasonry has long been known in England and Scotland, some of 
    the earliest records of Masonry in Scotland date from 1390 and in 
    England from 1410.  The institution was originally a craftsman's 
    organization, however for a craft that was the elite of all those 
    who must work for a living.  Those men were the cathedral, temple, 
    and palace builders. The architects and artisans, who were 
    entrusted with the construction of an edifice that would take years 
    to build and thousands of dollars to finance, must have been people 
    who knew well their trade and how to construct.  Training and skill 
    were essential.  Engineering problems were diverse, difficult, and 
    complex (they are even for today's well educated persons).  The 
    architecture was required to be beautiful and satisfying yet on a 
    scale that would suit both the finances and the visions of grandeur 
    of those authorizing and paying the cost.  It was both necessary 
    and essential that those directing the work of the artisans, 
    constructors, and architects be in fairly frequent contact with the 
    nobles or high officials of the church so as to obtain instructions 
    and approval as well as to consult about all the myriad problems 
    that had to be resolved. 

    nobles and church officials as well as to protect the trade 
    knowledge and skills and to prevent proliferation of artisans, the 
    masons organized themselves into societies.  These societies of 
    operatives were the precursors of the later Freemason lodges.  
    Inasmuch as the aristocrats were in contact often with the 
    builders, there came about a desire on the part of both the masons 
    and the aristocrats for an intermingling of men of both classes in 
    the lodges.  There was a bit of mystery about the lodges - secret 
    pass words, ceremonies known only to members, and the friendship, 
    care, and concern that each mason appeared to have and practice 
    about his brethren. Mystery attracts men of all areas and eras, no 
    one likes to be an outsider.  The Dionysian Rites of ancient Greece 
    and Rome most probably won more converts because of the mysterious 
    rites which were known only to the initiated than because of any 
    desires for truly religious experience. 

    
    The operative masons found it advantageous to admit the aristocrats 
    and upper middle class men, the contacts were beneficial from a 
    work contractual basis, and those persons most certainly were not 
    going to enter the labor market in competition for jobs.  The 
    aristocrats and upper middle class men found, in the lodges, a 
    readily available source of knowledge of conditions, wants, needs, 
    and desires of the operatives and inasmuch as the meetings were 
    held behind closed doors, the possibilities of public criticism for 
    their associations with the lower classes were greatly reduced. 
    Those who joined the ledges but who were not operatives were given 
    the name of "speculative masons," their participation in the lodges 
    being only at the level of friendship and for the study of moral 
    virtues.  Thus it was that Masonic lodges came to contain a curious 
    admixture of artisans and aristocrats, engineers and merchants, 
    architects and tradesmen, and churchmen and laymen.  Men who were 
    linked together by the ties of sincere friendship and the desire to 
    protect the interests of each other so long as moral codes and 
    allegiance to country were not violated.  This set the stage for 
    Freemasonry in England and for its stepson across the Atlantic, 
    Freemasonry in the United States. 

    
    Freemasonry in the United States was taken lock, stock, and barrel 
    from its English antecedents.  Ceremonies, titles, and 
    constitutions followed those of England (and Scotland).  The same 
    kinds of people joined lodges in the new country as did in the 
    motherland. Washington, the rich plantation owner, Benjamin 
    Franklin, the poor boy become rich printer, Paul Revere, the poor 
    apprentice become rich silversmith, and Collins Riddock, an unsung 
    townsman from a small settlement in Virginia[1] were all members of 
    Masonic Lodges. 

    
    It is well to note that in England public display of Masonic events 
    and disclosure of Masonic affiliation is very infrequent.  In 
    England, one does not see the lapel pins and rings with Masonic 
    emblems that one sees in the United States.  The Englishman very 
    zealously guards his privacy and considers his club, his lodge, his 
    private life to be his own affair and cares not at all to have a 
    public spectacle made of it.  William Hogarth, the 18th century 
    engraver and print maker, was a well known depictor of English 
    society.  His unflattering portrayal of a lodge officer in his 1738 
    engraving entitled "Night", from the series, "The Four Times of the 
    Day,[2] struck a sour note among the Masons.  There resulted much 
    consternation and internal policing of their public activities for 
    there is a dearth of publicity, either favorable or unfavorable, 
    following Hogarth's print. 

    
    Despite the lack of public image, Freemasonry in England did not 
    want for leadership.  The Grand Master is the top level officer of 
    Freemasonry and is its designated leader.  A member of the 
    aristocracy (nobility or royal family) was often found occupying 
    this office. Installed as Grand Master in 1813 was His Royal 
    Highness, Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, sixth son of King 
    George III.  The Duke served as Grand Master until his death in 
    1843. 

    
    Of interest to Virginians is the Duke of Sussex's first marriage.  
    He married in Rome (Italy) on April 4, 1793, Lady Augusta Murray, 
    the second daughter of Lord Dunmore, who was the John Murray, 4th 
    Earl of Dunmore, scourge of Norfolk in 1776 during America's 
    revolutionary war.  Prince Augustus had not had the approval of his 
    father prior to the marriage and the marriage greatly displeased 
    his father by what was reported as a Roman Catholic marriage, a 
    patently illegal union for a member of the royal family, a 
    violation of the Royal Family Act of 1782.  Although a subsequent 
    marriage ceremony was performed in England in December 1793, Lady 
    Augusta was never recognized by the crown and consequently was 
    never given the title of Duchess.  The son born of this union, Sir 
    Augustus D'Este, was permitted to attend his father's funeral but 
    his was the last coach in the procession.  The newspaper accounts 
    of the funeral do not show the D'Este was the son of the Duke of 
    Sussex.  At the cathedral ceremonies, he was seated with the 
    peerage in a section reserved for "personal friends" of the Duke.  
    Included in this group of friends were Alexander Edward Murray, 6th 
    Earl of Dunmore (the grandson of Norfolk's nemesis). Freemasonry 
    was represented in the person of Thomas Dundas, 2nd Earl of 
    Zetland, who was destined to become the next Grand Master of Masons 
    in England. 

    
    A reader of the accounts in "The Times of London" of the death and 
    funeral of the Duke of Sussex had to be diligent to find that he 
    had been a Masonic Official.  Near the end of the account, on an 
    inside page, is reported: "By the death of the Duke several offices 
    become vacant:  his Royal Highness was President of the Society of 
    Arts, Acting Grand Master of the Order of the Bath, Ranger of St. 
    James and Hyde Parks, High-Steward of Plymouth, Colonel of the Mon. 
    Artillery Company, Grand Master of Freemasons, Governor and 
    Constable of Windsor Castle, and a Knight of the Garter.[3] 

    
    Thomas Dundas, 2nd Earl of Zetland, became Grand Master in 1844 and 
    served in that capacity until 1870. Lord Thomas served as Lord 
    Lieutenant of North Riding in Yorkshire.  His father had been Lord 
    Lieutenant, Vice-Admiral of Orkney and Zetland, and Lord Mayor of 
    the city of York.  The Masonic tradition of the Dundas family 
    carries on into present times.  Lawrence Alfred Mervyn Dundas, 3rd 
    Marquis of Zetland, is currently the Junior Grand Warden of the 
    Grand Lodge of England and has been a Provincial Grand Master of 
    North and East Yorkshire since 1956.  In line with the traditional 
    low key of Masonic publicity, "The Times of London" carried the 
    following item on page 4 of the March 8, 1844, edition:  The Earl 
    of Zetland was on Wednesday night elected Grand Master of the 
    Freemasons for the year ensuing.  The Marquis of Salisbury was also 
    put in nomination.[4]  This was the whole coverage of an event that 
    lasted several days and had several hundreds of Masons in 
    attendance. 


    Though the Masons avoided publicity for the most part, they were 
    not averse to publicity as it related to the good works they did.  
    "The Times", on January 24, 1844, carried an article about "The 
    Masonic Ball" held to raise funds to aid "aged and deceased 
    masons."  The event took place at Freemason's Hall on Great Queen 
    Street in London.  The "attendance was more numerous than on any 
    previous occasion," there was dancing for many hours, done with a 
    great amount of spirit, and the refreshments were liberal and 
    elegant.  "This festival, as a whole, was excellently conducted, 
    and reflects praise on the stewards and directors of the 
    festivities.[5] 


    On June 20, that same year, the Masons received some additional 
    favorable reporting in "The Times".  Under the heading, "Asylum for 
    Aged and Decayed Masons," the eighth anniversary festival was 
    celebrated in the great hall of Freemason's Tavern.  Colonel Anson, 
    Member of Parliament, was chairman for the event and was supported 
    by a hundred members of the craft.  There were many visitors and 
    the gallery was filled with ladies.  The orchestra, under the 
    direction of Mr. C. Horn, provided the music.  Toasts were drunk to 
    Her Majesty the Queen, to Prince Albert, and to the Queen Dowager.  
    The funds raised that evening amounted to 400 pounds sterling which 
    together with funds already on hand, the account totaled over 
    4,000 pounds sterling.  The building, to be used as a home for old 
    and needy Masons, was to be started in the near future.  "The 
    evening was passed in the enjoyment of harmony and good fellowship, 
    and it was not until a late hour that the company dispersed.[6] 


    The Masons, who were pledged to not discuss politics at their 
    lodges, nevertheless permitted the use of their facilities for 
    political purposes.  "The Times" reported a meeting of the Anti-
    League Association at Freemason's Hall Tavern on Great Queen 
    Street.  This meeting was of craft and trade union representatives 
    who were against the freedom of action and for the protection of 
    industry.  The Anti-League had solicited support of the trades and 
    the unions were against the Association.  The meeting was well 
    attended.[7] 


    But the reporting was not always such as to be beneficial to the 
    Masons. In April, "The Times" had a short item: "Bishop Philpotts 
    has refused to allow the Freemasons to go in procession and have a 
    masonic service in Axminster Church.[8] 

                                                     
    Succeeding the Earl of Zetland as Grand Master in 1870 was one of 
    Masonry's controversial political figures, George Frederick Samuel 
    Robinson, 3rd Earl de Grey.  Lord George had been born at 10 
    Downing Street while his father was Prime Minister.  In 1849 at age 
    twenty-two, he was initiated into the Christian Socialist movement.  
    Among the leaders of that movement were Charles Kingsley, F. D. 
    Maurice, and Thomas Hughes.  The movement supported the engineers' 
    strike in 1852 in Lancashire and London.  Robinson gave 500 to 
    the Working Men's College in his efforts to promote advanced 
    education for the laboring classes.  He was the author of a plea 
    for democracy, "The Duty of the Age," but the Publications 
    Committee of the movement ordered the suppression of the 
    manuscript.  He was a strong supporter of the volunteer armed 
    forces and was appointed honorary colonel of the First Volunteer 
    Battalion of the Prince of Wales' West Yorkshire Regiment.  Active 
    in politics, he was a Member of Parliament for Hull in July 1852 
    but was unseated on the grounds of treating.  In April 1853 he was 
    elected a Member of Parliament from Huddersfield and held his seat 
    for four years and, in 1857, was returned without opposition.  In 
    1859, upon the death of his father, he assumed the title and 
    occupied his seat in the House of Lords. 
    
    
    In Palmerston's administration, he was Under-Secretary of War in 
    1859 and on April 13, 1863, was appointed Secretary of War with a 
    seat in the Cabinet and was admitted to the Privy Council.  He 
    succeeded Sir Charles Wood as head of the Indian Office in 1866 and 
    under Prime Minister Gladstone in 1868 became President of the 
    Council.  He was selected in 1871 to head up the American/British 
    commission to settle the claims resulting from the Civil War in the 
    United States.  The primary claims came from the action of United 
    States and Confederate naval vessels upon British commercial ships.  
    For his exceptionally fine work on the commission, he was honored 
    by the Queen by being created Marquis of Ripon.  During March 1873 
    he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of North Fiding.  In August of 
    that same year he resigned his cabinet post giving as his reason 
    "urgent private affairs."  "The Dictionary of National Biography" 
    provides an explanation: 

          Hitherto he had been a zealous Freemason, and on 
          23 April 1870 had become Grand Master of the 
          Freemasons in England.  That office he resigned 
          without explanation in August 1874.  Next month, 
          on 7 September, he was received into the Roman 
          catholic communion at the Brompton Orator.  The 
          step, which caused widespread astonishment, was 
          the fruit of anxious thought.[9] 
        

    It should be noted that under the law of the Roman Catholic Church, 
    no Roman Catholic was permitted to be a member of the Masonic 
    fraternity. Ripon's acceptance of that faith quite automatically 
    meant that he must sever all associations with the fraternity. 


    On Gladstone's return to power in 1880, Ripon once again became 
    quite active in public life.  At a testimonial dinner at the Savoy 
    Hotel given him in November 1908, about a year before his death, in 
    his farewell address to his political friends he said, "I started 
    at a high level of radicalism.  I am a radical still.[10]  During 
    the first half of a long and active career in political life, Ripon 
    had been a Freemason and it was only subsequent to his change in 
    religion that he resigned his membership. 


    The royal family was again in the front ranks of British Freemasonry 
    upon the resignation of the Marquis of Ripon as Grand Master in 
    1874.  His Royal Highness Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the 
    eldest son of Queen Victoria, was installed as Grand Master in 1874 
    and served in that capacity until 1901. (In 1901, he became Edward 
    VII, King of England.)  In that year, His Royal Highness Arthur, 
    Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, the third son of Queen Victoria, 
    was installed as Grand Master and served until 1939. 
    
    
    Influence of Masons upon the leadership of England was indirect as 
    well as direct.  Dugald Stewart (1753-1828), a member of Lodge 
    Canongate Kilwinning, was a well beloved and respected professor at 
    the University of Edinburgh. A geometrician of exceptional ability, 
    he was a professor of mathematics and also a professor of moral 
    philosophy at the University.  Among his pupils were many who rose 
    to eminence in the British government and in influential 
    intellectual circles.  One, who during his undergraduate days had 
    lived at Stewart's home, was Lord Palmerston, a future Prime 
    Minister.  Lord John Russell, Sir Walter Scott, and James Mill were 
    counted among his students.  Dugald Stewart was a close friend of 
    the well known Scottish poet, Robert Burns, who was an active 
    Freemason in Lodge St. David (renamed later, Lodge St. James) at 
    Tarbolton. 
    
    
    Of the same family as Burns was Sir Alexander Burnes (1805-1841).  
    Sir Alexander was Grand Master of Scottish Freemasons in India and 
    Grand Preceptor (Knights Templar) of Southern Asia.  He had 
    distinguished himself by exceptional military skill in the India 
    Department of the Royal Army, was knighted, and promoted to 
    Lieutenant Colonel in 1839. A very promising career was suddenly 
    cut short when he, his brother, and a subaltern, who were on a 
    military assignment in Afghanistan, were set upon by a mob and 
    killed on November 2, 1841. 
    
    
    The usual non-affiliate of Masonry does not make any connection 
    between Freemasonry and its many appendant organizations.  The 
    Commandery of Knights Templar is a semi-military organization, 
    membership in which has a prerequisite membership in some Masonic 
    lodge.  The Knights Templar were active in England, Scotland, and 
    Ireland.  The Duke of Sussex (who was also England's Grand Master 
    of Masons) was the Grand Prior of Knights Templar in England. The 
    Grand Prior for Ireland was Augustus Frederick (family name -
    Fitzgerald), 3rd Duke of Leinster.  The Duke was a Privy Councilor, 
    Lord Lieutenant of County Kildare, and also Grand Master of Masons 
    in Ireland.  His third son, Otho Augustus, was Member of Parliament 
    for County Kildare from 1865 to 1874, Treasurer of the Household to 
    Her Majesty Queen Victoria in 1866, Comptroller of the Household 
    for 1866-1874, and a Gentlemen of the Bed Chamber to His Excellency 
    the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 


    John George Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, was Grand Prior of 
    Scotland. The Earl of Durham was Ambassador at the Court of the 
    Czar in St. Petersburg, Lord Privy Seal (1820-1833), Governor 
    General of British North America, High-Steward of Hull, and a Privy 
    Councilor. A Whig in House of Commons, he was a Member of Parliament 
    from County Durham in 1813 and continued in Commons until elevated 
    to the peerage in 1828.  With Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham, 
    and Lord Duncannon, he was given the task by Lord Grey (the Prime 
    Minister) of preparing the first Reform Bill.  He was a great 
    speaker and debater in Parliament and at public events and a person 
    of boundless energy and great high spirit.  Counteracting his good 
    qualities was an overwhelming vanity, irritable temper, a complete 
    lack of tact, and poor health.  His poor health carried him away at 
    the early age of forty-eight. 


    The Grand Master of all Knights Templar from 1838 to 1840 was a 
    very colorful Admiral of the Royal Navy, Sir William Sidney Smith 
    (1764-1840).  Sir William was famous for his defense in 1799 of St. 
    Jean d'Acre against the forces of Napoleon Bonaparte which brought 
    to him a vote of thanks from Parliament, an annuity of 1,000 pounds 
    sterling, and a permanent place in the annals of British Naval 
    heroes.  He had served in the House of Commons as a Member of 
    Parliament for Rochester. Upon his retirement from active naval 
    service, he devoted himself full-time to the Knights Templar and 
    lived most of the time in Paris. 


    With the passing away of Admiral Smith, the next Grand Master of 
    the Knights Templar, His Grace, George Augustus Frederick John, 6th 
    Duke of Atholl, was installed with a great show of pomp in the 
    Music Hall in Edinburgh on March 11, 1846. 
    
    
    The Friendly Societies in England came into being early in the 18th 
    century and grew by leaps and bounds in the 19th. From only a few 
    societies in the early 1700's with several thousand members, the 
    Poor Law returns of 1803 showed better than 9,550 organizations and 
    over 700,000 members.  By 1850 the membership was in the millions.  
    In the latter 1800's the societies admitted women and by 1924 there 
    were over 30,000 societies and a membership total of more than 
    32,000,000. 


    The Friendly Societies were benevolent societies for the protection 
    of workers in time of ill health and old age. They paid death 
    benefits, burial expenses, and made payments to widows and orphans.  
    They were self-sustaining annuity type companies.  They were not 
    appendant bodies to Freemasonry nor was Masonic membership in 
    anyway a requisite.  Freemason lodges were not benevolent and 
    protective societies and had no such payments as were made by the 
    Friendlies.  P. Gosden informs us: 

    
    An article in the "Oddfellows' Magazine" for 1829 stated that "The 
    Order of Oddfellows was originally instituted on Masonic 
    principles, the object of which is to cement more firmly the bonds 
    of social feeling and sympathetic intercourse between man and man."  
    The masons appeared to do two things, to enjoy a fair measure of 
    prosperity and to stick together, surrounding their activities and 
    contacts with a good deal of secrecy.[11]  


    He adds further: "There was in fact a close connection with the 
    masons in the early years of the Manchester Unity.  The Grand 
    Committee of the Unity on 15 March 1815, resolved 'that in 
    consequence of information received from the Masonic Grand Lodge, 
    John Wood never be admitted into our Order.' On 25 September 1816, 
    the Committee recorded that they had been in touch with the masons 
    concerning one of the brethren and had agreed that he was not 
    worthy of membership in any society."[12] 


    The Friendly Societies included in their ranks many organizations 
    that are well known today, even in the United States.  The greatest 
    in Victorian England was the Independent Order of Oddfellows with 
    the Ancient Order of Foresters following closely behind.  Others 
    included orders named Order of Druids, Loyal Order of Ancient 
    Shepherds, Royal Standard, and Hearts of Oak.  All to some extent 
    aped the Freemason lodges in that they had secret passwords, grips, 
    signs, and rituals. 


    Dorothy Lipson in her history of Freemasonry says, "Although the 
    fraternity tended to emphasize the brotherhood of masons and kings, 
    it was not equality they were extolling.  Their goal was a Masonic 
    meritocracy.[13] 


    Reflecting upon the moral straight jacket into which Victorians 
    endeavored to publicly lace themselves, a comment by Lipson 
    provides some interesting insights as to why membership in the 
    fraternity was sought by many middle class and upper class men.  
    She remarks: 

    "There is another dimension of Freemasonry that should be only 
    mentioned here, and then not quite forgotten.  Masonry was an 
    expression of the "play element" . . ., which Johan Huizinga has 
    described as a distinct and fundamental function of life in all 
    societies.  Ultimately incapable of exact definition, play is a 
    free and voluntary activity, which Hunzinga suggests, adorns life 
    because of its "expressive value" and its "spiritual and social 
    associations."  In play people create "temporary worlds within the 
    ordinary world, dedicated to the performance of an act apart":  
    play proceeds by its own regular duties, and it "promotes the 
    formation of social groupings which tend to surround themselves 
    with secrecy and to stress their difference from the common world."  
    Ideas of "magic, litany, sacrament, and mystery" are all rooted in 
    play . . . (I)t may appear that these characteristics also define 
    Masonry:  a game, most seriously and solemnly played by most of its 
    members, until or unless the social stakes of Masonic membership 
    became too high and spoiled the fun, or other uses of the 
    fraternity made it mundane."[14] 


    During the period 1826-1838 there was a very strong period of anti-
    masonic feeling in the United States.  The disappearance and 
    assumed murder of a man, who was in the process of printing and 
    offering for sale to the public a complete digest of all the 
    secrets, ritual, and philosophies of the Freemasons, triggered a 
    great hue and cry of disapprobation for Masonic societies, 
    especially in the north eastern states. 


    Lorman Ratner speaking of anti-masonry says: 

    "Though Americans of the late 1790's experienced what seems to be 
    the kind of extreme anxiety that so often provides fertile ground 
    on which movements aimed at countering supposed subversion grow, no 
    such movement took root.  One may conclude from this that although 
    a high level of anxiety may increase the likelihood of a society's 
    being attracted to simplistic explanations of and solutions for the 
    problems of the time, such a development is not automatic.  The 
    crusade apparently must be sparked by some dramatic event or events 
    to capture public attention.  It must be well directed, and its 
    leaders must offer some plausible grounds for the public to accept 
    crusade as a cure-all. Finally the crusaders must have a sufficient 
    organization to channel toward some specific objectives the 
    excitement of those their cause attracts.  The Antimasons of the 
    1790's had an anxious people to whom they could appeal.  So, too, 
    did the Antimasons of the 1820's. But unlike their eighteenth-
    century predecessors, that later group succeeded in promoting a 
    crusade against the Fraternity.  Anxiety appears to have been a 
    prerequisite for an anti-masonic crusade but not the only, or 
    perhaps even the primary, cause of it."[15] 


    The anti-masonic movement in the United States began dying in 1828, 
    only two years after its commencement.  It did not last beyond 
    1838, though in some localities it was active until then. 


    A review of British documents and newspapers of the same period - 
    1826 to 1838 - shows no comparable movement against the Freemasons 
    in England. Surprisingly enough, the correspondents from America 
    for "The Times of London" do not even mention the political 
    discussions and squabbles brought about by the Anti-Mason Party in 
    America. One can but speculate as to why.  Most probably, the 
    British were laughing at their crude and uncouth cousins in America 
    for their ungentlemanly treatment of William Morgan (the murdered 
    man), the alleged revealer of Masonic secrets.  After all, Masonic 
    exposures had been available at book shops in London and elsewhere 
    in Great Britain for half a century.  There was no need for anyone 
    to be upset, now, about a long past 'fait accompli'. 


    Asa Briggs says of the Victorian men: 

    "Amid the broad ranks of "the middle classes," independent small 
    men were the dominant group, not only in retailing, but in commerce 
    and manufacturing.  The virtues they prized were those to be 
    acclaimed by Samuel Smiles - self-help, perseverance, duty, 
    thrift, and character.  They conceived of self-dependence not only 
    as a ladder to individual success but as the mainspring of social 
    improvement.  All men could profit from it."[16] 


    The mason of the Victorian period would nod affirmatively to those 
    words for they basically were the teachings of his fraternity.  His 
    ritual spoke of brotherly love and truth.  The cardinal virtues - 
    temperance, fortitude, justice, and prudence - were extolled at his 
    meetings.  The rewards of well spent time, industriousness, and 
    improvement of the mind were often brought to his attention and 
    strongly recommended. 


    Whether the strong moral inclinations of many of the leaders of 
    Victorian England were a result of the teachings of Freemasonry 
    with a burgeoning militant Christianity is impossible to say.  
    Certainly a great many of the leaders were not Masons, some sects 
    even forbade membership in the fraternity.  However, the Mason 
    could revel in the knowledge that his organization was in tune with 
    the temper of the times. 




    NOTES:

    [1] William Moseley Brown, "Freemasonry in Virginia" (1733-1936),
        (Richmond, Va.: Masonic Home Press, 1936), picture opposite p. 28.

    [2] William Hogarth, "Night," in "Engravings by Hogarth", edited by
        Sean Shesgren, (New York:  Dover Publications, 1973), plate 45.

    [3] News article in "Times of London", edition of 22 April 1843,
        p. 4, col. 5.

    [4] News article in "Times of London", edition of 8 March 1844, 
        p. 4, col. 3.
        
    [5] News article in "Times of London", edition of 24 January 1844, 
        p. 4, col. 5.

    [6] News article in "Times of London", edition of 20 June 1844, 
        p. 5, col. 2.
    
    [7] News article in "Times of London", edition of 5 March 1844, 
        p. 6, col. 4.

    [8] News article in "Times of London", edition of 24 April 1844,
        p. 2, col. 4.
     
    [9] The Dictionary of National Biography", Sir Sidney Lee, ed.,
        (London:  Oxford University Press, 1912, Reprint edition 1939),
        (Supplement, Vol 1), p. 218.

    [10] "DNB", (Supplement, Vol 1), p. 218.

    [11] P. H. J. H. Gosden, "The Friendly Societies in England" 1815-1875, 
         (Manchester, England:  Manchester University Press, 1961), p. 127.

    [12] "Friendly Societies", p. 127-28.

    [13] Dorothy Ann Lipson, "Freemasonry in Federalist Connecticut",
         (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1977), p. 41.

    [14] "Freemasonry in Federalist Connecticut", p. 11.

    [15] Lorman Ratner, "Antimasonry: The Crusade and the Party",
         (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1969), p. 7.

    [16] Asa Briggs, "Victorian People:  A reassessment of persons and 
         themes, 1851-67",(Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, c. 1955,
         revised edition 1972), p. 19.



                                BIBLIOGRAPHY 


    Addison, Charles Greenstreet.  "The Knights Templar History", First 
    edition 1842, Reprint edition, New York: Macoy Publishing Co., 1978. 

    Briggs, Asa. "Victorian People:  A reassessment of persons and 
    themes, 1851-67".  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, c. 1955, 
    rev. edition 1972. 

    Brown, William Moseley.  "Freemasonry in Virginia (1733-1936)". 
    Richmond, Va.: Masonic Home Press, 1936. 

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