THE OBJECT OF MEETING IN A RESEARCH LODGE

Bro.  Robert Eugene Juthner, P.D.D.G.M.

Inaugural Address

(81-09-26)

PART 1  -  INTRODUCTION

Though the purpose of this paper is partly characterized by its
title, the author will attempt to go beyond the mere
justification for conducting Masonic research, by discussing some
of the do's and don'ts of research writing, and research into
matters of Masonic interest.  In covering these matters which the
writer believes to be essential for research to produce honest
and unbiased results, the reader should keep in mind that none of
the statements herein are meant to be dogmatic or to discourage
the would-be, first-time investigator by the sheer number of
considerations to be obeyed; the intention is quite to the
contrary: to encourage Masonic research which will lead to useful
conclusions and, through this paper, to provide a set of
guidelines which can be tailored to specific applications.

Ordinarily, the division of a paper into parts, and the use of
sub-titles should be avoided.  In this case it is expected that
some future researchers may want to use this paper as a reference
manual, therefore, to facilitate locating points of interest, the
paper is divided into four parts: an introduction, a discussion
of the types of research, the tools of research, and writing the
research report.

As will be quite evident to the Masonic reader, the title was
chosen in allusion to a certain passage in the General Charge
given during the installation ceremonies in this and many other
Grand Jurisdictions.  There it is said that

The object . . . of meeting in the lodge is of a two-fold nature,
namely, moral instruction and social intercourse.  Our meetings
are intended to cultivate and enlighten the mind, to induce the
habit of virtue, and to strengthen the fundamental principles of
our order: Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth. (and)..... the chief
point in Freemasonry (is) to endeavour to be happy ourselves, and
to communicate that happiness to others. (1)

There are several more pertinent statements following the quoted
passage, but it may suffice for the purposes of this paper just
to recall this description of the object of meeting in what could
be termed a "degree-granting institution", namely a constituent
lodge devoted to the making of Masons.  How then does a research
lodge differ from her members' mother lodges?

1 Alberta, The Grand Lodge of, Ceremony for investing
the Officers of a Lodge, 1973, p. 35
 
A recent Canadian Masonic publication, Meeting the Challenge,
devotes the following few lines to a description of a research
lodge:

Research lodges and other masonic research groups hold regular
meetings at which original papers are read; these papers are then
published in the form of "Transactions" which are sent to all
members of the group.  Most of the papers deal with matters of
history.  Sometimes as well these bodies will try to provide
answers to specific questions about the reasons for certain
Masonic customs.  The lodges are usually permitted to accept
non-resident members into a "Correspondence Circle." (2)

This description fits FIAT LUX LODGE OF RESEARCH quite well, but
it is the sincere hope of this writer that papers dealing with
"matters of history" will not occupy the number one position
among future research work, but that some of the work will be
aimed at providing valid and reliable data which can be used for
better informed decision-making on the floor of Grand Lodge.

Mackey's Encyclopedia of Freemasonry is silent on the subject of
research lodges, a circumstance easily explained by the fact that
its copyrighted first edition dates from 1873, whereas Quatuor
Coronati Lodge No. 2076 of London, the first research lodge, was
warranted in 1884, Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia, copyright 1961,
offers an enumeration of research lodges and associations in the
British Isles, the United States, and even Canada by mentioning
the Toronto Society for Masonic Study and Research, but it
neglects to mention those in other parts of the world, such as
Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Guyana, New South Wales, New
Zealand, South Africa, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria
(Australia) and Western Australia. (A more complete listing may
be found in the appendix to this paper.) Coil justly accords
Quatuor Coronati the status of premier research lodge in the
world,

  . . . which has furnished the example for all subsequent
research lodges. (3)

He is less kind to others when he goes on to say,

The name (research lodge) has, however, been more popular than
has actual research, so that the title is often used by lodges
that do very little research.  Such a lodge requires a working
membership of dedicated students and a location near one of the
great Masonic libraries . . . (4)

It is well for the brethren of a fledgling research lodge to heed
Brother Coil's warning regarding the quality of actual research
work.  What an Alberta lodge can do about his other statement,
concerning the proximity of "one of the great Masonic libraries"
remains to be seen or, in other words, poses a problem to be
solved.


Part VIII of the Constitution of the Grand Lodge of Alberta
provides for research lodges in this Grand Jurisdiction.  Article
1000 (1) states,

Lodges for the purpose of conducting research in any or all
aspects of Craft Masonry may he formed with the consent of the
Grand Master and The Grand Lodge of Alberta. (5)


2 Canada in the Province of Ontario, Grand Lodge of, Meeting the
Challenge, 1976, p. 72

3 H. W. Coil, Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia, 1961, p. 523

4 ibid.

5 Alberta, Grand Lodge of, Constitution, 1980, p. 97A

Extracts from other significant passages are:

1010 (1) Research Lodges may admit as subscribing members those
who desire to be aware of and support the progress of Masonic
research in Alberta, but who do not desire full membership . . .
(6)

and

1012 (2) Research Lodges shall not initiate, pass, or raise
candidates, but when tyled may exemplify parts or all of any
degree of Craft Masonry. (7)

Of these three articles, the first quoted gives an extremely
broad mandate to a research lodge, namely to conduct research in
any or all aspects of Craft Masonry.  The only restriction
implied is in the word "Craft", but there is no limitation as to
Masonic Craft rites practised throughout the world.  Likewise,
and fortunately, there is also no restriction as to the topic or
field of concentration, such as history, organization, lineage,
jurisprudence, the liberal arts and social sciences, ritual and
symbolism, and philosophy. Had the Masonic lawgivers expanded on
that mandate, the challenge to the brethren in a research lodge
would have diminished.

The second quotation corresponds to the statement by Coil, quoted
earlier, regarding correspondence circles, or subscribing
memberships, as they are termed in Alberta.  A pool of
subscribing members is important, not so much to finance I:he
research lodge's publications, as it is more likely that in case
of deficit the regular members will pick up the slack, but to
enlarge the audience and thus to make the efforts of the
researchers and authors worth-while.  Implied in this is the
desire to raise the work of the research lodge above the
suspicion of self-centredness to the level of service to the
Craft at large.

The third quotation was included here to emphasize that it is not
in the province of the research lodge to make Masons but, if
found desirable, to make degrees of Craft Masonry, or parts
thereof, the object of exemplification.  This particular aspect
may remain among the rare occasions in the life of the research
lodge, but the mechanism for it is embodied in the Constitution.

All of these last three quotations assist us in answering the
question "what is the object of meeting in a research lodge?"
Quite evidently, many more objects or objectives can be added,
introducing the opinions of learned and experienced brethren; for
the purposes of this paper, however, the above references to
existing literature shall suffice.  Aside from this, how shall
one justify the formation of a research lodge? There are no
statistical data to support a voiced need for such a body, mainly
because there had been no prior research into that problem!
Therefore, the following statement is completely unresearched; it
is pure conjecture on part of the writer, but probably quite
accurate: There was a desire for in-depth studies into matters
Masonic among some (by far not all) brethren in the jurisdiction,
which crystallized into rumblings communicated to some in
authority.  They in turn, selected one brother with proven
potential to carry the torch, and to gather around him others of
like inclination so as to make something tangible out of what had
hitherto been a mass of primordial protoplasm. - This may have
been the way in which FIAT LUX LODGE OF RESEARCH came about.

6 ibid.,  p. 97B
7 ibid.,  p. 97C

Before we go any further, it is well to define the term research. 
We have all heard the supposed witticism to the effect that when
one copies from one source he is guilty of plagiarism, but when
he copies from several sources, he has conducted research! That
is not very kind.  The unabbreviated Oxford International
Dictionary offers the following definition:

An investigation directed to the discovery of some fact by
careful study of a subject; a course of critical or scientific
inquiry. (8)

The key words here are "discovery", "careful" and "critical".

A Dictionary of Psychology  (by James Drever) defines research
thus:

Systematic scientific investigation in pursuit of knowledge, or
confirmation, in any field. (9)

Standard dictionaries provide various, mostly similar and never
contradictory definitions, but they rarely enlarge on the
intricacies of the research process.  There are different
approaches to research, partly because of the difference in raw
data, and partly because of the difference between fields of
study.  To explain, there is a marked difference between the
study of the behaviour of rats in a clinical experiment, research
into historical events, and an opinion poll.  Naturally, we deal
with entirely different data and must, therefore, use an entirely
different approach each time. Tyrus Hillway distinguishes between
three "Types of Research" (10). He calls these types
"Fact-Finding", "Critical Interpretation" and, for the want of a
better name "Complete Research." "Fact-Finding Research" consists
of a search for facts without any attempt to generalize or to use
these facts to solve a problem.  This type of research may be
important in laying the ground work for further studies.  Hillway
explains by use of the following examples, which could easily be
translated into Masonic areas of concern:

Suppose a scholar is investigating the history of a certain
college. He collects old records, catalogues, newspaper accounts,
letters, diaries, and so on to establish the facts of the
institution's growth and development. . . . Unless he is seeking
to prove some generalization about the college, his task
essentially consists of factfinding.

The same would ordinarily be true for a scholar attempting to
write the biography of some notable person in his field.  Unless
the study goes into such matters as an evaluation of the person's
character, an assessment of the benefits derived from his
contributions to the field, or judgments of a similar nature, the
work involved in the study amounts almost entirely to
fact-finding. 

A scholar who compiles a bibliography of all books and articles
published on a certain topic . . . or a statistical examination
of . . . any one of a vast number of activities in scholarship
which involve making a record of the facts relating to a
situation which is being investigated - such a scholar is
conducting research on the factfinding level. (11)

8  Oxford International Dictionary,  1958,  p. 1712

9  Drever,  A Dictionary of Psychology,  1964,  p. 248

10 Hallway, introduction to Research, Ch. 7, pp. 99-106

11   Ibid.,  p. 100

Freemasonry, closely connected to philosophy and literature, may
however be dealing with ideas a great deal more than with facts. 
We realize that much, if not all of our traditional history has
no foundation whatsoever in recorded history, and is included in
our teachings - not because it is historically true - but because
of the great and immutable Truths (with a capital T) it conveys. 
Such research may then consist primarily of a critical
interpretation of these ideas.  Hillway states,

Probably the only method of approach to the question would be an
analysis and classification of the opinions expressed and a
critical interpretation of them, showing in a logical way the
strength and weakness, the reasonableness or unreasonableness, of
each opinion found and of any further ideas on the matter which
the scholar himself might have.  Then, having reasoned out in his
own mind a logical and acceptable answer to the question, the
scholar might state this answer as his own considered opinion. 
This often results in an essay rather than in a research report.
(12)

We can readily see the difference between these two approaches;
in the first case we dealt with fact-finding and its reporting;
in the other, where conclusions rest chiefly upon logic and
reasoned opinion, we deal with critical interpretation.  This
process is not without value, especially in Masonic research,
because it enables us to arrive at conclusions on matters about
which clearly established facts are scarce or even non-existent. 
Hillway mentions three particular characteristics which must be
present in critical interpretation.  First, the argument must
agree with known facts and principles in the field under
investigation; second, the arguments must be clear and
reasonable, and must follow logic; the steps in reasoning that
led to the conclusions must be clearly demonstrable, and the
whole reasoning must be " . . . so impeccably honest and so
thoroughly complete that the reader will be. . . impelled by it
to accept the scholar's conclusions.  Third, the argument must
have an outcome representing the reasoned opinion of the
researcher, an opinion based on accepted facts and principles,
and supported by logic as well as all available evidence.  In
this context Hillway warns against conclusions which rely on the
scholar's intuitive or general impressions rather than upon
specific and reasoned argument. (13)

Hillway's third type of research, which he calls Complete
Research, makes use of both fact-finding and reasoning. 
Fact-finding alone does not usually solve problems, and critical
interpretation, while often meant to solve a problem may not
always be based on factual evidence but sometimes relies on mere
speculation.  Complete research, on the other hand, is said to
have the following characteristics: first, there has to be a
problem to be solved; second, it requires a body of evidence -
mostly provable facts and occasionally expert opinions -; third,
analysis of that evidence and its testing with regard to the
problem; fourth, arranging the evidence into logical arguments so
as to lead to the solution of the problem; and fifth, a definite
answer or conclusion solving the problem. (14)

From the foregoing it is evident that Complete Research makes
great demands on the scholar as it requires long and painstaking
search for factual evidence, complete searches of available
literature, and the weighing of the results of previous
investigations done by others.

12 ibid., pp. 101-102
13 Ibid., pp. 102-103
14 Ibid., pp. 103-105


Another authority on research, John W. Best of Butler University,
stresses the point that "Research involves gathering new data or
using existing data for a new purpose from primary or first-hand
sources. . . . merely reorganizing or restating what is already
known and what has already been written is not research." (15)

This verdict is apt to deliver a stunning blow to both the
efforts and the ego of this writer who, therefore,must seek
solace in the hope of bringing into focus,for the purposes of
research to be conducted by members of FIAT LUX LODGE OF
RESEARCH, some of the basic elements of scientific inquiry
already well known to the research community.

Best points out that

Research always involves an analysis of the relationships between
causes and effects which imply the possibilities of empirical
testing. Certain interesting problems do not lend themselves to
research procedures because they are metaphysical; they cannot be
tested empirically. Research rejects revelation and dogma as
methods of gaining reliable knowledge and accepts only what can
be verified by observation. (16)

It is well for the would-be researcher in matters Masonic to
remember this because so much in Freemasonry is in the realm of
metaphysics.  This statement is not meant to discourage the
Masonic scholar from delving into areas such as philosophy or
symbolism, quite the contrary, but to emphasize the importance of
the right choice of research method which lends itself to solving
the problem at hand.

What Hillway called an "impeccably honest" approach, Best puts
into these words:

The researcher strives to eliminate personal feeling and bias. 
There is no attempt to persuade or to prove an emotionally-held
conviction. The emphasis is on testing rather than on proving the
hypothesis.  Although absolute objectivity is probably as elusive
as pure righteousness, the researcher tries to suppress bias and
emotion in his analysis. (17)

This passage should be read, and re-read, until firmly entrenched
in the mind and attitude of every Masonic researcher.  Too often
personal bias rears its ugly, or rather unscientific, head in
papers delivered before Masonic audiences, something that,
hopefully, is never to happen in this lodge.  But, what does this
mean? This "impeccable honesty" or "absence of bias," demanded of
any researcher and, therefore also of the Masonic scholar,
directs him to report on all of his findings and to base his
conclusions and recommendations on everything unearthed by him
without deleting what has come up which contradicts his original
hypothesis, or pet idea.  In other words, the outcome of one's
research project might completely contrast a point one wanted to
make but, nevertheless, it must be reported.  Only that
constitutes honest research, no matter how unpopular the
conclusions may be.  Therefore, research must be a process of
testing, rather than proving, implying an objectivity that lets
the data lead where they may.

15 Best,' Research in Education, 1970, p. 9
16 Ibid.
17 ibid., p. 10

Hallway, cited earlier in this paper, also has an answer to the 
question,

What is not Research?

The beginning scholar sometimes imagines that, when he has
recorded the opinions of a great many experts upon some subject
and then announced his own opinion, he has done research.  This
is not the case. To know the opinions of others may be helpful,
but it solves no problems.  Problem solving can be accomplished
scientifically only through gathering and weighing the factual
evidence.

Furthermore, the beginning scholar is likely to think that,
because he has invented a plausible theory to explain the
phenomenon he is investigating, his work has been completed.  The
theory still remains to be tested and proved - that is, the
scholar must marshal his evidence in support of his idea.  Too
many scholars fall in love with hypotheses which have no support
except their inventors' faith. (18)

Let it not be said that all this is well as far as the world of
science is concerned but that it has no application to Masonic
lay research, as witness the entry customarily printed in the
inside cover of Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, the transactions of the
premier research lodge.  Under the heading "About the Quatuor
Coronati Lodge" we read, among other things,

Inevitably they (the founders) became known as the Authentic
School", leaders in a new style of Masonic Research which shunned
those baseless and imaginary studies that had bedeviled Craft
historians for more than a century. (19)

Although the reference here is primarily to previous efforts to
link modern Freemasonry with hoar antiquity for the purpose of
lending more respectability and to overawe the reader, the
articles published in Ars Quatuor Coronatorum, and the integrity
of the editor's blue-pencil evident in them, show beyond any
doubt that the "impeccable honesty" referred to earlier is
rigidly applied to their publications, regardless of theme.  This
we must emulate in FIAT LUX and its publication Vox Lucis.


PART 2 - TYPES OF RESEARCH

Earlier in this paper we have discussed Hallway's three types of
research, the "fact-finding", the "critical interpretation", and
the so-called "complete research." To this writer's mind they are
not so much types, but rather methods, or possibly levels of
research, thereby reserving the term "type" to a characterization
of three entirely different kinds of research.  These are agreed
on by many authors as Historical Research, Descriptive Research
and Experimental Research.  Historical Research is said to
describe what was, Descriptive Research what is, and Experimental
Research what will be.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Obtaining knowledge about the past has always intrigued men in
general, and Freemasons in particular, but the historian's
approach has changed considerably through the ages.  It was not
uncommon among early writers to create 

18 Hillway, op.cit., p. 106

19 Quatuor Coronati, A.Q.C., any issue

literary masterpieces in place of objective reports of
happenings.  Also, for centuries, objective truth often yielded
to a glorification of the church or the state.  This state of
affairs has been largely overcome by now, although at times
personal or national bias is still evident in the reporting. 
Properly done, historical research is carried out by collecting
facts from the past, by examining and verifying them, and by
presenting those facts in a report that will stand the test of
critical examination.  Historical research, therefore, is a
critical search for truth.  When engaged in gathering the facts,
primary sources such as the testimonies of eye witnesses or
actual objects used in the past, relics that can be directly
traced to the event under investigation, are the basic materials
of historical research.

Secondary sources may be less trustworthy, as they represent
materials based on third-, fourth- and fifth-hand information. 
They can, however, serve useful purposes by leading the
researcher to work previously done in the field and to primary
sources which he should consult.  During the stage of examining
and verifying, the researcher checks each fact or account of past
happenings meticulously, to determine its trustworthiness, and if
suspecting that a document contains errors, to endeavour to
detect whether they are unintentional or deliberate deceptions. 
A 20th Century historian must be careful not to read into
documents of earlier periods the conceptions of later times, and
he will really have to show his competence when comparing
conflicting testimonies pertaining to the same event or condition
in history.

Not unlike the physical scientist, the historian too formulates
hypotheses to be tested, but the types of hypotheses and
procedures for testing differ from those of the physical
scientist because some of the factors he is investigating may be
unmeasurable or unrecorded, and historical phenomena may have
many more complicated interrelationships than physical science
phenomena.  Historians cannot set up experiments in which they
can control conditions; therefore they must confine their
examinations to the relevant data available.  Their credibility
judgments may then be arrived at by the use of a confidence
scale, ranging from near certainty at one end to considerable
doubt on the other.  It follows that historical researchers must
above all be cautious to a fault, in accepting evidence as
reliable and trustworthy.

The reliability of a historical research report, however, is not
merely determined by how critically the historian examined his
source materials but also by how well informed he is about the
past and the present.  His interpretation of the struggles among
the tribes of Israel, for example, will depend a great deal on
how much he knows about early Jewish society, his knowledge of
psychology and human behaviour and his familiarity with the past
and the present, so as not to misinterpret important events from
the past.  In this context, Marc Block writes,

. . . misunderstanding of the present is the inevitable
consequence of ignorance of the past.  But a man may wear himself
out just as fruitlessly in seeking to understand the past, if he
is totally ignorant of the present. (20)

Earlier in this paper the statement was made that "Historical
Research is said to describe what was." This can be an end in
itself, but it is more likely that the researcher would want to
generalize, and predict future events on the basis of his
findings, as physical scientists would do.  Not all historians
agree that this can be done.  Those taking the negative view do
so because, they say, past events were often unplanned and
developed because of the influence of one or few individuals
leading to results which will never be repeated; witness

20 Block, M., The Historian's Craft, 1953, p. 43

reports may suffer from doubtful competence or doubtful
objectivity; the historian cannot control the conditions of
observation or manipulate the significant variables.  Those who
contend that historical investigation may have characteristics of
scientific research activity present these arguments: the
historian also delimits a problem, formulates hypotheses, gathers
and analyzes data, tests hypotheses, and formulates
generalizations or conclusions; he may have witnesses who have
observed the event from different vantage points and he subjects
the evidence to critical analysis in order to establish its
authenticity, truthfulness and accuracy; in reaching conclusions
he employs principles of probability as do physical scientists;
and

Although it is true that the historian cannot control the
variables directly, this limitation also characterizes most
behavioral research, particularly nonlaboratory investigations in
sociology, social psychology, and economics. (21)

On the topic of generalization in historical research,  M. I.
Finley comments:

. . . the question at issue is the nature of the historian's
function.  Is it only to recapture the individual, concrete
events of a past age, as in a mirror, so that the progress of
history is merely one of rediscovering lost data and of building
bigger and better reflectors? If so, then the chronicle is the
only correct form for his work.  But if it is to understand -
however one chooses to define the word - then it is to
generalize, for every explanation is, or implies, one or more
generalizations. (22)

On the writing of the historical research report, Best says,

No less challenging than research itself is the writing of the
report, which calls for creativity in addition to the qualities
of imagination and resourcefulness . . . Research reports should
be written in a style that is dignified and objective.  However,
the historian is permitted a little more freedom in reporting.
(23)

To conclude this section of the present paper, an enumeration of
common faults which plague beginners' historical-research
projects is given below, again in the words of John W. Best:

1. Problem too broadly stated.

2. Tendency to use easy-to-find secondary sources of data, rather
than sufficient primary sources . . .

3. Inadequate historical criticism of data, due to failure to
establish authenticity of sources and trustworthiness of data. 
For example, there is often a tendency to accept a statement as
necessarily true when several observers agree.  It is possible
that one may have influenced the other, or that all were
influenced by the same inaccurate source of information.

4. Poor logical analysis resulting from:

(a) Oversimplification - failure to recognize the fact that
causes of events are more often multiple and complex than single
and simple.

(b) overgeneralization on the basis of insufficient evidence, and
false reasoning by analogy, basing conclusions upon superficial
similarities of situations.

21 Best, op. cit., pp. 98, 99
22 Finley, M.I., "Generalizations in Ancient History", 1963, 
p. 34
23 Best, op.cit., pp. 109, 110


(c) Failure to interpret words and expressions in the light of
their accepted meaning in an earlier period.

(d) Failure to distinguish between significant facts in a
situation and those that are irrelevant or unimportant.

5. Expression of personal bias, as revealed by statements lifted
out of context for purposes of persuasion, assuming too generous
or uncritical an attitude toward a person or idea (or being too
unfriendly or critical), excessive admiration for the past . . .
or an equally unrealistic admiration for the new or contemporary,
assuming that all change represents progress.

6. Poor reporting in a style that is dull and colourless, too
flowery or flippant, too persuasive or of the "soap-box" type, or
improper in usage. (24)

DESCRIPTIVE  RESEARCH

Descriptive Research describes and interprets present conditions,
prevailing practices, trends and attitudes, presently held
beliefs and points of view, or ongoing processes.  In the words
of John Best,

The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere gathering
and tabulating of data.  It involves . . . analysis and
interpretation of the meaning or significance of what is
described . . .  comparison or contrast . . . measurement,
classification, analysis and interpretation.

. . . merely describing what is does not comprise the entire
research process . . . conclusions will be based upon
comparisons, contrasts, or causal relationships of various kinds.
Thus, the discovery of meaning is the focus of the whole process.
(25)

We are here dealing with a research method which is particularly
appropriate for investigations in the behavioral sciences, and
therefore of interest to a Masonic research body, provided its
members set their goals higher than the mere reporting of what
transpired in the past.  The results of descriptive research, in
Freemasonry, may well lead to strategies and policies from which
future generations of Masons can profit.  By its techniques, old
errors can be discovered, and new and better ways could be
pointed out in the conclusions.  Best lists three types of
information, requisite to such a study, and three steps required
to solve a given problem:

The first type of information is based upon present
conditions.....gathered by a systematic description and analysis
of the present situation.

The second type of information involves what we may want. What
conditions are desirable?

The third type of information is concerned with how to get there.
It may involve the opinions of experts, who presumably know best
how to reach the goal.

The first step involves systematic analysis of present
conditions. The second step projects goals for the future.  Step
three considers how to reach those goals, which have been
established by the analysis of step two. (26)

24 ibid., p. 110
25 Ibid., pp. 116, 117
26 Ibid., pp. 118, 119

Not all writers are in agreement on how to classify descriptive
studies.  One convenient break-down into three categories would
list (1) survey studies, (2) interrelationship studies, and (3)
developmental studies.  The following discussion will explain
them.

SURVEY STUDIES

When trying to solve problems, governmental, political, and
industrial or business organizations often conduct surveys, be
they broad or narrow in scope.  Survey data may be collected (by
the use of questionnaires or interviews, or both) from every
member of a given population or from a carefully selected,
representative sample.

The survey method gathers data from a relatively large number of
cases at a particular time.  It is not concerned with
characteristics of individuals as individuals.  It is concerned
with the generalized statistics that result when data are
abstracted from a number of individual cases.  It is essentially
cross-sectional. (27)

One well known type of this category is the Opinion Poll, widely
applied to gauge public opinion in matters of political prognosis
or of market research.  It may well have its application to
matters Masonic, especially when the law-givers and organizers
are willing to listen to the rank and file.

In our culture, where so many opinions on controversial subjects
are expressed by well-organized special-interest groups, it is
important to find out what the people think.  Without a means of
public opinion, the views of only the highly-organized minorities
are effectively presented. (28)

Another type of the same category which may have practical value
in Masonic research, is Documentary Analysis.  Here, written
records, rather than opinions, are examined, much as in
historical research (but historical research is more often
concerned with the distant past, and descriptive research with
the present).  Documentary Analysis may aid in describing present
conditions and practices that prevail in various lodges and their
communities, or in grand lodges and their respective states or
provinces.  By it we can find not only the apparent differences
in practices and customs, but also the underlying attitudes,
biases, interests, values, and psychological trends of the
populations investigated.  Other survey types common to areas
such as business and industry, e.g., job analyses and market
research, are outside the scope of this paper.

INTERRELATIONSHIP STUDIES

When it is not sufficient to obtain a description of the existing
status of the matter under investigation, and it is necessary to
trace the relative interdependence of two or more groups, or
phenomena, then one of the types of interrelationship studies
will apply.  Within that category, some writers distinguish
between Case Studies, Causal-comparative Studies and Correlation
Studies.  Not all of these are seen by this writer to be of
benefit to research projects conducted by a research lodge.  For
example, it is doubtful whether a method heavily relying on
mathematical processes as they are involved in correlation
studies, will have any widespread application to Masonic
research.

In a Case Study, an extensive investigation is carried out into a
specific social unit - a person, family, group, or community. 
Such institutions as business groups, churches, corrective
institutions, hospitals, industrial concerns,

27 Ibid., p. 120
28 Ibid., p. 125

social service agencies, schools and universities, and fraternal
organizations have been studied by this method in the past.  The
focus of attention, in a Case Study, is on the typicalness of the
organization studied, to isolate all factors which sets it apart
from others in society.

When the focus of attention is directed toward a single case or a
limited number of cases, the process is personalized . . . The
case method probes deeply, and intensively analyzes interaction
between the factors that produce change or growth..... showing
development over a period of time. (29)

As in social research, case studies have been made of all sizes
of communities and all types of individuals belonging to various
racial, political, religious or trade groups, or having achieved
positive ends in life such as executives, leaders or other men
and women of fame, or just the opposite, such as alcoholics,
drug-addicts, criminals and juvenile delinquents, and school
drop-outs.  To cite two examples, demittees from Masonry could be
studied by this method in order to formulate hypotheses for
overcoming the problem, as could Masons in general, to ascertain
what motivated them to join in the first place.

Case studies are similar to surveys, but instead of gathering
data concerning a few factors from many respondents, an intensive
study is made of a limited number of representative cases.  The
case study can reveal a wealth of information that the survey
cannot produce.  Pauline Young claims that,

. . . the most meaningful numerical studies in social science are
those which are linked with exhaustive case studies describing
accurately the interrelationships of factors and of processes.
(30)

All types of studies have their own limitations.  When conducting
a case study, the investigator must guard against his own and his
subject's desire to present the right answer, against poor
memory, unconscious biases as well as deliberate deception, data
based on faulty perception, and the like.  When properly
conducted, case studies can make useful contributions to the body
of knowledge.

Causal-comparative Studies go one step further.  They are of use
when the investigator tries to discover not only what a
phenomenon is like, but, if possible, how and why it occurs. 
They lend themselves to finding out what factors accompany
certain events, conditions, or practices.  There may or may not
be a place for Causal-comparative research in Masonic studies,
and it would be very interesting to see the outcome of such a
probe into the interrelationship of educational lodge programming
and the effect it has on members' attendance, or a score of other
possibilities.  This method has been used outside our sphere of
immediate concern in studies dealing with highway deaths and
their causes and in cancer research, not all of which is
laboratory-based.  It must be recognized, however, that this
method cannot be applied indiscriminately, and that conclusions
must be carefully examined.

One of the most serious dangers of causal-comparative research is
the post-hoc fallacy, the conclusion that, because two factors go
together, one is the cause and the other the effect . . . Failure
to single out the really significant factor, failure to recognize
that events often have multiple rather than single causes, basing
conclusions on a too limited number of occurrences, and failure
to recognize that factors may go together without having a
cause-effect relationship, may lead the researcher to false or
misleading conclusions.  (31)

29 Ibid., p. 127
30 Young, P.V., Scientific Social Surveys and Research, 1956, 
p. 230
31 Best, op.cit., pp. 131,132

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES

The category of developmental studies will be dealt with here
under two sub-headings: Follow-up and Trend Studies.  These are
concerned not only with the existing status of phenomena under
investigation and their interrelationships, but also with the
changes that occur as time goes on.  Time may mean a matter of
months, or of years.

Follow-up Studies, by some writers termed Growth Studies, are
conducted, basically, to establish what individuals had profited
from certain experiences as time progressed.  From this brief
explanation it is quite evident that this is one method of
research which is meaningful to the educator.  However, an
attempt will be made to suggest an application of the method to
certain Masonic

The follow-up study investigates individuals what has happened to
them, and what has been the impact upon them of the institution
and its program.  By examining their status or seeking their
opinions, one may get some idea of the adequacy or inadequacy of
the institution's program. (32)

The "institution's program", in Masonic terms, may well be the
approach taken by a lodge, or its Master, regarding the education
of candidates, the enlightenment of older members, or any and all
activities and fraternal interrelationships in the life of a
lodge.  The newly raised brother, when asked, may say that he was
impressed, and he may add some other complimentary comments.  A
Follow-up Study, five, ten or twenty years later, may yield
valuable information regarding the "adequacy or inadequacy" of
the "program". (It should be understood that all this is not
meant to encroach on the basic teachings, tenets and philosophy
of Freemasonry.)

Trend Studies, also termed Predictive Studies could, at least in
theory, be applied to matters of Masonic concern; whether or not
a full study of that nature will ever be conducted in this
jurisdiction, remains to be seen.  Outside Masonry such studies
are of value, as they may effectively guide business, industry
and community leaders in their decision making duties.  These
studies are to identify trends and to predict what is likely to
take place in the future.  This type of research may combine the
historical, documentary, and survey techniques.  The researcher
gathers information from documentary sources that describe past
and present events or conditions and, after comparing the data,
i.e., studying the rate of change and the direction it takes, he
predicts events or conditions which may prevail in the future.

This type of study furnishes valuable data for planning programs,
in whatever area they may be. of course, such predictions are
estimates, representing tentative conclusions only.  Wars,
economic recessions, great technological discoveries, and many
other unforeseen events could hasten or arrest the process of
growth or development. (33)

Because of the many unforeseeable factors connected with social
change, trend analyses may vary greatly in certainty of
prediction: the long-range type is merely an estimate, short-term
predictions possess greater certainty.


32 Ibid., p. 135
33 ibid., p. 136


EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

The third type of research, Experimental Research, may be the
most sophisticated of the types discussed, and it is widely
applied in areas where controlled experiments can be conducted to
test hypotheses relating to what results will be obtained if
certain conditions are met.  Often, such studies involve control
groups which are not exposed to the same changes as the
experimental groups studied.  It could be argued that even this
method has its application to the study of phenomena identified
within a voluntary organization such as the Freemasons, but it
would take a great deal of convincing this writer that an
experiment involving Masons, or Lodges, or both, could be con-
ducted, and could, at the same time, serve a useful purpose and
satisfy a definite need.


PART 3 - TOOLS OF RESEARCH


Very early in the planning stage of a research project the
investigator will choose the type of research procedure which he
determines to yield the kind of data necessary to test his
hypothesis.  He will weigh the merits of the various methods for
collecting evidence, and from the available tools, he will select
the most appropriate for his purpose.

Each inquiry begins with the statement of the problem; from it
arises the formulation of a hypothesis or hypotheses.  The nature
of the latter will determine the selection of the appropriate
tool or instrument.  Each of these may lend itself to the
acquiring of particular data and sometimes several different
instruments must be employed to obtain the information required. 
The researcher must, therefore, be familiar with these tools, the
nature of the data they produce, their advantages and
disadvantages, and the extent of their reliability, validity, and
objectivity.  The tools to be discussed include the
Questionnaire, the Opinionnaire, the Interview, and Observation. 
Other instruments, such as sociometric and psychological testing
and inventories, as well as methods of laboratory
experimentation, will not be discussed because of their dubious
applicability to Masonic research.

THE QUESTIONNAIRE

When gathering data from a population sample to answer questions
of a factual nature, a Questionnaire will represent a suitable
instrument.  When opinions rather than facts are desired, the
proper instrument to be applied is termed an Opinionnaire or
Attitude Scale.

Questionnaires may be mailed out to the respondents, or they may
be administered in person.  The latter approach has the advantage
of establishing rapport between the researcher and his subjects,
and of clarifying details should that be necessary.

The mailed questionnaire is probably both the most used and most
criticized data-gathering device.  It has been referred to as the
lazy man's way of gaining information, although the careful
preparation of a good questionnaire takes a great deal of time,
ingenuity, and hard work.  There is little doubt that the poorly
constructed questionnaires that flood the mails have created a
certain amount of contempt . . .

Filling out lengthy questionnaires takes a great deal of time and
effort, a favour that few senders have any right to expect of
strangers. The unfavourable reaction is intensified when the
questionnaire is long, the subject trivial in importance, the
items vaguely worded, and the form poorly organized . . .


Unless one is dealing with a group of respondents who have a
genuine interest in the problem under investigation, who know the
sender, or who have some common bond of loyalty to a sponsoring
institution or organization, the rate of return is frequently
disappointing . . .

Although the foregoing discussion may seem to discredit the
questionnaire as a respectable research technique, the attempt
has been to consider the abuse or misuse of the device. 
Actually, the questionnaire has unique advantages and, properly
constructed and administered, it may serve as a most appropriate
and useful data-gathering device in a research project. (34)

In the third paragraph of the above quotation, Best probably
referred to alumni of a certain college as the recipients of a
questionnaire sent to them by a graduate student of their alma
mater, and their inclination to respond out of a feeling of
loyalty and, perhaps, affection, remembering the days when they
were the ones asking favours.  This writer can see a very
definite application of that quotation to Freemasons as possible
respondents to a survey which deals with aspects very near and
dear to them.

Questionnaires may be designed in a closed or an open form, or in
a combination of both, depending on the nature of the problem and
the character of the respondents.

THE CLOSED  FORM  QUESTIONNAIRE

 This type calls for short responses which may be represented by
check marks, by yes-or-no replies, or by rank-ordering on some
scale.  Sometimes, provisions are made to insert short answers in
blank spaces, a category "other" may be added, or an instruction
such as "kindly specify", to enable the researcher to classify
even unanticipated responses.  The following example illustrates
the closed form in one of its variations:

Why did you desire to become a Freemason?

Please indicate three reasons in order of importance,  using
number 1 for most important, 2 for the second most important, and 
3 for the third most important:                          RANK

(a) Example set by a friend
(b) Advice of a friend
(c) Reputation of the Craft
(d) Literature perused
(e) Good fellowship expected
(f) Economic returns expected 
(g) Other (please specify)



34 ibid., pp. 161, 162


THE OPEN FORM QUESTIONNAIRE

Rather than forcing the respondents to choose between rigidly
limited responses, an open-form questionnaire permits them to
answer freely in their own words and their own frame of
reference.  There are, however, disadvantages to this method
which at first view appears superior to the closed form: having
no clues to guide their thinking, they may unintentionally omit
important information, and if they lack the ability or the time
to give considerable thought to the questions, they may not
provide useful data.  Also, the task of categorizing, tabulating,
and summarizing their many different and complex answers may be
very difficult and time consuming.  Using the same example given
above, an open-form item would simply read:




Why did you desire to become a Freemason?

and sufficient space would be provided to accommodate the answer.

QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

Both kinds of questionnaires, in order to yield accurate data,
require the asking of precisely worded questions that are apt to
elicit unambiguous answers.  It must be remembered that often the
same words mean different things to different people, a fact that
calls for carefully defining and qualifying terms that could
easily be misinterpreted.  Best points out the following:

Be careful in using descriptive adjectives and adverbs that have
no agreed-upon meaning . . . Frequently, occasionally, and rarely
do not have the same meanings to different persons. One
respondent's occasionally may be another's rarely.  Perhaps a
stated frequency - times per week, times per month - would make
this classification more precise.

The same author offers a concise, eight-point advice under the
heading, 

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

1. It deals with a significant topic, one the respondent will
recognize as important enough to warrant spending his time on ...
2. It seeks only that information which cannot be obtained from
other sources.
3. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the
essential data . . .
4. It is attractive in appearance, neatly arranged, and clearly
duplicated or printed.
5. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are
defined, each question deals with a single idea, all questions
are worded as simply and as clearly as possible.....(providing
for) unambiguous responses.
6. The questions are objective, with no leading suggestions as to
the responses desired . . .
7. Questions are presented in good psychological order,
proceeding from general to more specific responses . . .
8. It is easy to tabulate and interpret.  It is advisable to
preconstruct a tabulation sheet, anticipating how the data will
be tabulated and interpreted, before the final form of question
is decided upon.  This working backward from a visualization of
the final analysis of data is an important step in avoiding
ambiguity in the questionnaire form.

35 Ibid., p. 165
36 Ibid., p. 170


All of the above is good advice.  In addition it should be stated
that it always pays dividends for a researcher first to submit
his questionnaire items to his peers for criticism (in the
Masonic research lodge probably to a number of the members who
are knowledgeable in that particular area of research), and also
to administer the instrument to a small group in a trial run, in
order to ascertain whether the questionnaire in its original form
does indeed elicit the type of responses needed, or whether it
requires further refinement.  Then the necessary changes can be
made before the research instrument is administered to the target
population.

THE OPINIONNAIRE

When instead of factual information the researcher aims to obtain
individuals' personal feelings or attitudes, the opinionnaire is
the instrument frequently used.  Although oral methods can be
employed, the most frequent method uses a type of questionnaire
that differs from the previously discussed only in the phrasing
of the questions.  It is quite likely that an individual, when
confronted with a question of some substance, will react by
voicing an opinion which he believes conforms to expected values
(which may be the case in Masonic research).  This kind of
response may be given consciously or unconsciously; in either
case, that should be anticipated by the researcher who should
construct his instrument accordingly.  The respondent may not
even have given the question any serious thought until confronted
with it.  That also has to be taken into account.  Best offers
words of wisdom:

Even behaviour itself is not always a true indication of
attitude.  When politicians kiss babies, their behaviour may not
be a true expression of affection towards infants.  Social custom
or the desire for social approval make many overt expressions of
behaviour mere formalities, quite unrelated to the inward
feelings of the individual . . .

With these limitations in mind, psychologists and sociologists
have explored an interesting area of research, basing their data
upon the expressed opinions of individuals.  Several methods have
been employed:

1. Asking the individual directly how he feels about a subject. 
This technique may employ a.....questionnaire of the open or
closed form.  It may employ the interview process, in which the
respondent expresses his opinion orally.
2. Asking the individual to check the statements in a list with
which he is in agreement.
3. Asking the individual to indicate his degree of agreement or
disagreement with a series of statements about a controversial
subject.
4. Inferring his attitude from his reaction to projective
devices, through which he may reveal his attitude unconsciously.  
      
(A projective device is a data-gathering instrument which
conceals its purpose in such a way that the subject cannot guess
how he should respond to appear in his best light.  Thus, his
real characteristics are revealed.) (37)

Among the techniques developed to measure opinions elicited by
opinionnaires or public opinion polls, are those of L. L.
Thurstone (38) and R. Likert. (39) Thurstone constructed an
attitude scale by assembling a large number of statements
concerning a topic, some mildly favourable, favourable, and
strongly

37 Ibid., pp. 173, 174
38 Thurstone, L.L. and E.J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitudes,
1929
39 Edwards, A. and K.C. Kenney, in Journal of Applied Psychology,
XXX, 1946.


favourable - others mildly unfavourable, unfavourable, and
strongly unfavourable.  A hundred or more judges sorted these
statements into piles, indicating their own judgments as to the
degree to which the statement was favourable or unfavourable. 
For example, following Thurstone, we may approach the public with
a survey which would sort the following statement as extremely
favourable to the Masonic order:

"All public servants should belong to a Masonic lodge."

Similarly, the following would be sorted as unfavourable;

"Masonic lodges should be forbidden by law."

The extremes, as cited here, are easily defined, but it is much
more difficult to verbalize (intelligently and with purpose) the
various stages in between.  When all responses are gathered, the
number of times each statement is included in the several piles,
is tabulated, assigned a value and a position given it by the
judges.  Statements that are too broadly scattered in the judges'
sorting, are discarded as ambiguous or irrelevant.

Another method, that of R. Likert (1932), eliminates the use of
judges.  It is as reliable as Thurstone's method, and it is
simpler.  The respondent gives his answers along a 5-point scale:
strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, strongly disagree. 
This method arbitrarily gives a weight of 1 to 5 to the
alternative answers, and the same numerical values are always
given; for example:

"Appoint Freemasons to public office"   -  strongly agree:   5
"Exclude Freemasons from public office" - strongly disagree: 5 

Although the answers differ, they receive the same weight because
they both reveal a favourable attitude toward Freemasons.  The
total score for each subject is the sum of the values assigned to
each item that he checked.

If the instrument consisted of 25 items, the scores would be
interpreted thus:

#Items:  Value:   Score:   Interpretation:

25  x    5  =    125   Most favourable response possible
25  x    4  =    100   Favourable response
25  x    3  =     75   Neutral attitude
25  x    2  =     50   Unfavourable response
25  x    1  =     25   Most unfavourable response possible

As in the case of the questionnaire discussed earlier, it is
advisable that a pilot run be conducted to isolate weak items and
items that do not sufficiently discriminate between respondents
who obtain high and low scores on the attitude scale.

The interpreter should bear in mind that the 5 points on the
scale are not necessarily equally spaced, e.g., the interval
between "strongly agree" and "agree" may not be of the same
magnitude as that between "agree" and "undecided'.' Another word
of caution is in order: although the opinionnaire is designed for
anonymous responses, some individuals may still give answers
according to what they think they should feel, rather than how
they really feel.  In spite of these limitations, opinion
measurement has merit in the area of social research.

THE INTERVIEW

Many people are more willing to communicate orally than in
writing, therefore, they will provide the required data more
readily in the friendly atmosphere of an interview than on a
questionnaire.  Interviews can also be conducted in the
exploratory stage of research, to be followed up by other means.

Some interviews, termed Structured Interviews, are rigidly
organized and formal: the same questions are presented in the
same manner and order to each subject.  Even the same
introductory and closing remarks are used.  Unstructured
Interviews are flexible, and although preplanned questions are
asked, they may be altered to suit the subject and the situation. 
This approach allows the interviewer to follow up unexpected
clues and to penetrate behind the initial answers.  Best states,

After the interviewer gains rapport, or establishes a friendly,
secure relationship with the subject, certain types of
confidential information may be obtained that an individual might
be reluctant to put in writing.  The interviewer can explain the
purpose of his investigation, and can explain more clearly just
what information he wants.  If the subject misinterprets the
question, the interviewer may follow it with a clarifying
question.  At the same time, he may evaluate the sincerity and
insight of the interviewee . . .


The preparation for the interview is a critical step in the
procedure. The interviewer must have a clear conception of just
what information he needs.  He must clearly outline the best
sequence of questions and stimulating comments that will
systematically bring out the desired responses.  A written
outline, schedule or check list will provide a set plan for the
interview, precluding the possibility that the interviewer will
fail to get important and needed data . . .

When interviews are not recorded by tape or other electronic
device, it will be necessary for the interviewer to take written
notes, either during the interview or immediately thereafter . ..

As a data-gathering technique, the interview has unique
advantages.  In areas where human motivation as revealed in
reasons for actions, feeling, and attitudes is concerned, the
interview can be most effective.
. . . This technique is time-consuming, however, and one of the
most difficult to employ successfully. (40)

OBSERVATION

The last of the "tools" of descriptive research to be discussed
in this paper, is direct observation as a data-gathering
technique.  It may be used to obtain data on human activities or
on material objects.  In Masonic terms, the former may entail an
objective, comparative study of Brethren in action, or of Lodges
in action; the latter could be a study concerned with all the
Lodge premises in the jurisdiction: their age and state of
repair, materials of construction, number and size of rooms,
furniture, facilities, works of art, but also the financial end,
utilization by other organizations, and other relevant aspects. 
Best contributes the following thoughts:

. . . observation as a research technique must always be expert,
directed by a specific purpose, systematic, carefully focused,
and thoroughly recorded . . .

The observer must know just what to look for.  He must be able to
distinguish between the significant aspects of the situation and
factors that have little or no importance to the investigation.
of course, objectivity is essential, and careful and accurate
methods of measuring and recording are employed.  The use of the
check list, score card, or some other type of inquiry may help to
objectify and systematize the process . . . (41)

40 Best, op.cit., pp. 186, 187
41 Ibid., p. 182

PART 4 - THE RESEARCH REPORT

This paper is prepared for the sole purpose of being presented to
FIAT LUX LODGE OF RESEARCH; therefore, the following discussion
concerning the writing of the report will not touch on the
customary requirements associated with university theses and
dissertations, reports to institutions like the National Research
Council, nor on the preparation of articles to be published in
scientific journals.  Any omissions of do's and don'ts the reader
may discern, have been committed for just that reason.  What
remains is what still applies to a Masonic research paper, and it
conforms to the usages of the academic community.

THE FORMAT

Unless the paper is brief (and few thoroughly researched papers
can be brief), it should contain the following: (a) the title and
author; (b) an abstract or precis, (c) the body of the report
consisting of hypotheses, the evidence and associated features,
and the conclusions; (d) a summary restating the conclusions
(this is not a duplication of the abstract up front); (e)
appendices if applicable; and (f) acknowledgements and the
bibliography.  At times it may be advisable to place a table of
contents ahead of the body of the report; this applies when it is
a lengthy paper and when it is subdivided into distinct sections
or chapters.

The abstract contains all of the report in condensed form, for
the benefit of the peruser who will gain from it sufficient
information on whether or not the paper is of interest or concern
to him.  The summary at the end, if thought to be valuable,
recapitulates the salient points or findings of the study but
does not explain the why and how of the research techniques used. 
In a sense, the use of an abstract, the body of the report of
course, and a summary, complies with one of the recommended
practices speakers are advised to use: "First you tell them what
you are going to tell them; then you tell them; and afterwards
you tell them what you told them."

The body of the report itself should be properly introduced.  It
depends upon the subject and its complexity whether this can be
done in a sentence or two, or whether the introduction amounts to
something like a chapter.  In any case, acquainting the reader
with what is to follow, is a necessary step in preparing him for
properly understanding the author's work.  A good introduction
stimulates interest and motivates the reader to peruse the
document to its end.

The next step, within the body of the report, consists of the
presentation of the evidence and its analysis.  Because of the
wide variety of studies and kinds of data that exist no specific
direction can be given for organizing this section of the report. 
The conclusions announce whether the findings of the study
confirmed or rejected the original hypotheses.  If the
conclusions are found to modify the existing theory, this fact is
discussed.  If the investigation raised questions that suggest
further research, this is stated.

The summary has been briefly explained above.  In addition, one
should remember not to treat it as an afterthought and not to
contaminate it by allowing previously held convictions, not
tested by the research study, to creep in.  It should be written
so that a person, reading only the summary, may obtain real
benefit from it.

THE STYLE OF WRITING

Campbell's style manual, adopted for this publication, and
adhered to by this writer, is listed in the bibliography, but the
Brother who undertakes to do research for the benefit of FIAT LUX
LODGE OF RESEARCH and her publication, Vox Lucis, will do well
enough as long as he adheres to good usage,and presents his
report in a creative, clear and concise style.  The editor will
do the rest, but he is happiest when he has little to amend.

The findings of a study are of little value if they are not
communicated effectively.  Entertaining, amusing, or persuading
the reader is not the objective of the researcher, nor does he
merely discuss his opinions concerning a problem.  His arguments
must be based on the factual data he has collected, and he must
report whether they confirm or reject his hypothesis.  The writer
must also anticipate that his report will be read by
knowledgeable and discerning readers, experts in the field, who
may question the interpretations he placed upon the data and the
accuracy of the footnotes.  A research report must stand the test
of critical scholarship supplied by other investigators.

Since a pompous presentation impedes rather than increases
understanding, an able writer puts his report into simple
straightforward words and sentences, and defines unfamiliar terms
or uses them in a context from which their meaning can be
inferred.  Nevertheless,a formal rather than colloquial style is
employed, but formal writing need not drain all spontaneity and
individuality from the ideas to be conveyed.  Also, familiar,
concrete nouns arouse clearer mental images than carefully
planned profundities.

Of course, the generally accepted rules of correct English usage
should prevail.  The report is written in the third person;
personal pronouns such as I, me, we, you, our, and us - are not
used.  Simplified spelling is not acceptable in research reports. 
Punctuation must conform to good usage and must be consistent. 
Needless to say the spelling must be correct, whether concerning
English words or foreign terms.  The editor casts a watchful eye
over these matters, and the proofreader watches out for correct
syllable division (to avoid the horrible word "syllabification"). 
The past tense is used when referring to what the present
researcher or other investigators before him have done.  The
present tense is used when referring the reader to material
before him and when mentioning general truths and
well-established principles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A research worker acknowledges his indebtedness to other authors
not only as a matter of honesty and courtesy, but also as a means
of indicating the quality and thoroughness of his investigation. 
To some readers, especially other researchers, the footnotes and
bibliography are as important as the textual material. 
Therefore, the writer of a research paper should include all the
information that others will need to locate the source materials
with a minimum of effort.  There are specific style rules in
existence, for footnotes as well as bibliography listings.  These
will be discussed hereunder.


QUOTATIONS

Studding a report indiscriminately with quotations is a sign of
shoddy workmanship and of little original effort.  However,
quotations are of genuine value when presenting ideas in the
words of their originators, properly crediting them for their
thoughts (an approach used throughout this paper).  At times, a
writer would paraphrase, rather than quote verbatim, from the
work of another author; in that case he will credit the source by
a superscript at the end of the passage, while all the time
having used his own words rather than those of the original.  A
footnote will give credit to the author.  Quotations as such,
however, are word for word reproductions from the source, also
followed by a superscript and appropriate documentation in the
footnote, but it must be remembered that absolutely no change in
the words, even the spelling and the punctuation, use of capital
letters or not, and the like, must be made.  One does have the
liberty, however, to omit irrelevant portions from the paragraph
quoted by replacing them with three spaced dots:..... and
continuing, or ending the quotation as may be appropriate.  Under
no circumstances must anything be changed from the original text.

Short direct quotations not over three typewritten lines may be
enclosed in quotation marks and run into the text, except where
for the sake of emphasis they are made to stand out from the rest
of the text.  Long direct quotations, of more than three
typewritten lines in length, are set off from the rest of the
text in a separate indented paragraph or paragraphs, and are
single-spaced.

FOOTNOTES

Vox Lucis, the publication of this Research Lodge, has adopted
one of the most widely used forms of footnoting, that of
providing the explanatory, bibliographical information or a
cross-referencing with other parts of the text, on the same page
on which the passage referred to appears.  This is done by
repeating the superscript (consecutively numbered throughout the
paper) below a line at the bottom of the page, and then listing
the following; the author's name, the title (of the article or
journal, or of the book), the year of publication if desired, and
the page number on which the quotation may be found. (More
specific source data are given in the bibliography, which see.)

To save space, full bibliographical information is given in the
footnotes only the first time that a reference is made to a
source; thereafter, the commonly accepted abbreviations are used:

Ibid. (from Latin "ibidem" = in the same place) indicates the
same page of the same work as in the immediately preceding
reference.

Ibid., p. 8 This also refers to the same work, but to a different
page. ibid. can be used as many times as necessary, provided that
no intervening references to other books occur.  If there are
intervening footnotes, and the writer recites a work previously
footnoted, he uses

op.cit. (from Latin "opere citato" = in the work cited) following
the author's name and, therefore, with a lower case o:
Smith, op.cit., p. 234

When reference is made to more than one title (book or article)
by the same author, op.cit. cannot be used, but instead the
author's name, title, and page reference must be given.  When a
second but nonconsecutive reference follows, referring to the
same work and the same page previously cited, one uses the term

loc.cit. (from Latin "loco citato" = in the place cited), also
preceded by the author's name, e.g., Smith, loc.cit.

As articles to be published in Vox Lucis are first presented to
the editor and the proofreader, the author need not concern
himself too much with all the details of capitalizing and
italicizing footnote information; the proofreader will look after
that, but he should supply the editor and the proofreader with
all essential material required for inclusion in the footnotes. 
In other words, it is more a matter of content than of style.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

As with the footnotes, bibliographical data must be supplied in
their essentials.  While footnotes cite exact places where cited
or paraphrased material can be found, the purpose of the
bibliography is quite different.  It lists in alphabetical order
all the references used by the writer.  The alphabetical order
refers to the surnames of the (principal) authors, not to the
titles of the works used.  The bibliography must include all the
sources which were consulted (and usually cited somewhere in the
text), but no more.  It would be poor practice, bordering on the
unethical, to build up an impressive bibliography by listing
works related to the study but not used at all.

The listing of bibliographical information follows this sequence:


(1) Surname of the author, followed by given name or initials,
e.g., Block, Marc,           Finley, M. I.,

(2) The title, taken from the title page in full, underlined in
the manuscript and to be printed in italics, e.g.:

The Historian's Craft, (manuscript) The Historian's Craft, (as
printed), or in the case of an article, the title is placed
between quotation marks and the name of the publication is
underlined or italicized, e.g.,

"Generalizations in Ancient History" in Generalizations in the
Writing of History.

(3) Edition number, if more than one, e.g., 2nd ed.,

(4) Volume number if more than one.  In the case of periodicals
month, day and year may be required.

(5) Place of publication, followed by colon, e.g., Englewood
Cliffs:

(6) Publisher, e.g., Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

(7) Year of publication, e.g., 1970.  This year will be found on
the title page, or on the second page, and may be the year of the
copyright.

An examination of the bibliographies appearing in Vox Lucis, and
the following general rules will answer some common questions:

(A) If a book has two or more authors, the second and third
authors' names are written in the normal order of given names and
surnames, e.g., Aspeslet, A. O., R. J. L. Borland and W. J.
Collett, If there are more than three authors, the name of the
first is given, followed by et al. (and others), e.g., Aberdeen,
R. G. J. et al.,

(B) If a book is published under the name of an editor, this is
so indicated by (ed.) in parentheses, e.g., Fox, F. G. (ed.),

(C) When two or more works by the same author or editor are
listed, the first entry gives the name in full; subsequent
entries need not repeat the name but an unbroken line of about
six spaces in length can be used as a substitute.  The titles of
that author's work are then alphabetized under his name.

(D) When identifying the place of publication, the name of the
city is sufficient if it is well known; otherwise the country
should be given also.

(E) When quoting from an encyclopedia composed of articles by
numerous authors, this should be done as shown in this example:
Walzer, Richard R. Arabic Philosophy", Encyclopedia Britannica,
1959, Vol. 2

When the encyclopedia does not list individual contributors, this
format applies:
Coil, H. W., "Apron Lecture", Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia, 1961,
p. 64.

In the case of well known encyclopedias, other publishing
information may be omitted.

(F) Dictionaries are sometimes included in bibliographies when it
was found necessary to cite specific definitions.  These are
treated in the same way as encyclopedias.

Many more specialized cases can occur, therefore, the writer
should - the editor and proofreader must - consult an
authoritative source on bibliographical style such as the one by
W. G. Campbell listed in the bibliography of this paper.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alberta, The Grand Lodge of,  Ceremony  for  Investing  the 
officers  of  a  Lodge, Calgary,  1973

----, Constitution of the Grand Lodge of Alberta, Calgary, 
1969/1980

Best, John W., Research in Education,  2nd ed.,  Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,  1970

Block, Marc, The Historian's Craft,  New York:  Alfred A. Knopf, 
Inc., 1953

Campbell, W. G., Form and Style in Thesis writing,  3rd ed., 
Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company,  1969

Canada in the Province of Ontario, Grand Lodge of, meeting the
Challenge, Hamilton:  Masonic Holdings,  1976

Carr, Harry (ed.), Ars Quatuor Coronatorum London:  Quatuor
Coronati Lodge No. 2076,  any recent edition

Coil, Henry Wilson, Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia,  New York: 
Macoy Publishing & Masonic Supply Company, Inc.,  1961

Drever, James, A Dictionary of Psychology, Harmondsworth,
Middlesex,  England: Penguin Books Ltd., 1964

Edwards, Allen L. and Katherine C. Kenney, "A Comparison of the
Thurstone and Likert Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction",
Journal of Psychology, Vol.  XXX, February 1946, pp. 72-83

Finley, M. I., "Generalizations in Ancient History" in L.
Gottschalk (ed.), Generalizations in the writing of History,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963

Hillway, Tyrus, Introduction to Research, 2nd ed., Boston:
Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1964

Onions, C. T. (ed.), The Oxford International Dictionary, 
Unabridged, Toronto: Leland Publishing Company Limited,  1958

Thurstone, L. L. and E. J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitudes, 
Chicago: University of Chicago Press,  1929

Young, Pauline V., Scientific Social Surveys and Research, 
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,  1956



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