A.  History

Early Biological Theories: Studied exterior physical features because the lacked knowledge as to how the human body worked

Positivists: Forces outside the control of the individual (psychological, biological)               cause criminal behavior. 

1.  J.K. Lavater (1741-1801): studied the facial features of criminals to determine whether the shape of the ears, nose and eyes and the distance between them were associated with anti-social behavior.

2.  Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828): Developed the science of Phrenology:

3.  William Sheldon: 1898- 1977(1947) Somatype: Body build was related to criminal behavior.

• Mesomorph: have well developed muscles and have an athletic appearance.
• Endomorph: Have heavy builds and are slow moving and lethargic.
• Ectomorph: tall thin and less social and more intellectual than the others

Note:  Minor physical anomalies (MAP's)linked to delinquency particularly those associated with the mouth

4.  Cesare Lombroso: 1835-1909 (Criminal Atavism): Italian doctor, Father of modern   criminology. 

PREMISE: People are born Criminal. 

Criminal Atavism:  Criminals were throwbacks to our primitive ancestors and that criminals had not evolved as far as the non criminals.

5.    Inheritability:  Late 19th Century:  Criminality was an inherited trait. 

Kallikak  and Juke families

6.  Charles Goring: (1870-1919)    "The English Convict" (1913).  

Refuted Lombroso but did conclude that the inmates had defective intelligence.

Eugenics:  Process of scientifically improving hereditary quality of people by removing those with undesirable characteristics from the gene pool.

B.  Modern biological Theory

Biological theories lost significance beginning in the 1920's until the 1970's.

Interest was renewed in part by Edward O. Wilson:  sociobiology:  human behavior is a product of the interaction between social and biological factors.

Modern biocriminologists:  Not all humans are born with the with a  equal potential to learn and achieve nor indulge in criminal behavior.

Biological Factors that impact human behavior:

1. Biochemical Factors:

Biochemical conditions are either acquired through genetics, the diet and/or the physical environment and can influence social behavior.

The Twinkie defense

Nutrition and Diet 

Food additives and food dyes

• Malnutrition before birth linked to antisocial behavior.
• Some studies found that some children's behavior significantly worsens after they consume artificial food additives or certain foods such as milk, wheat or corn
• Nutritional supplements have been shown to improve learning disabled school performance.

Vitamins

A deficiency in the intake of  vitamins such as Vitamin C, B3 and B6 have shown a
relationship to anti-social behavior and aggression

• There is some evidence that vitamin-mineral supplementation can increase IQ in children in malnourished children.
• Vitamin supplementation reduced risk of delinquency and increased IQ scores.

Hypoglycemia: 

Occurs when blood sugar levels fall below the amount needed for normal brain functioning.

• Studies have been able to link this condition to violence episodes including sexual assault, murder and assault.

Allergies

• Allergies to foods have shown some indication that it can influence or modify behavior.

Hormones:

James Q. Wilson: The Moral Sense  (1994):  hormones, enzymes and neurotransmitters explain gender differences between males and females.

Male sex hormones (androgens) are related to violence.   Androgens promote violence by causing people to seek greater levels of environmental stimulation and to tolerate more punishment.  It also increases impulsivity, emotional volatility and antisocial emotions.

• Testosterone:  Higher levels of this hormone have been found in criminals who are more prone to violence.  Also, females exposed to higher than normal amounts of this hormone have exhibited higher amount of aggression than normal and men who have lowered levels of testosterone tend to be less violent than normal.

• Low saliva levels of the hormone cortisol are strongly associated with persistent, severe aggression at an early age.

• Pre-Menstrual Syndrome (PMS):

1971 by a Katharina Dalton :  PMS may cause violent and aggressive behavior in women.  which was attributed to excessive amounts of sex hormones

Environmental Contaminants:

Radiation from artificial lighting, lead ingestion and exposure toxic metals, and pesticides and nicotine:

• Numerous recent studies have linked maternal smoking during pregnancy to criminal behavior in offspring.
• Found link between exposure to heavy metals such as lead, manganese and cadmium and violent behavior and ADHD and lower IQ.
• Excessive use of cholorpyrifos (dursban) in the inner city causes learning and behavioral problems. (This chemical has been banned)
• Physicians group warns of epidemic of learning and behavior disorders due to toxins. Children with higher levels of bone-lead levels are more likely to be involved in delinquency

2.  Neurophysiological Factors:

Involves the study of the brain and nervous system structure of offenders

EEG Abnormalities

• EEG measures brain wave activity and studies have shown a strong association between higher than normal brain wave activity and aggression and other antisocial behavior
• Focal abnormalities of the left brain hemisphere may be associated with violent behavior.

Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD)

MBD is related to abnormal cerebral structure.

The most severe form may manifest itself in dyslexia, visual perception problems, hyperactivity , poor attention span and temper tantrums and aggressiveness.  It is usually episodic.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD)

All children will often exhibit signs of hyperactivity, impassivity and a general lack of attention but in 3% of the children (mostly boys) in the U.S.

The condition has been associated with:
poor school performance, grade retention, placement in special needs classes, bully like behavior, stubbornness and lack of response to discipline.

• ADHD brain changes appear early in childhood.
• ADHD may be related to diet (artificial food additives)

Ritalin overprescribed?  Some say it is a way to deal with lazy parents.    Some children that have been diagnosed with ADHD are actually bi-polar.

• Brain Chemistry:

Neurotransmitters are chemical compounds that influence or activate the brain functions.  The more important of these dopamine and serotonin Abnormal levels of these chemicals can cause aggression.  Drug addiction disorders have been attributed to the deficiency of dopamine.

• Low levels of serotonin in the brain and high levels in the blood are strongly linked to aggression and impulsive behavior.    
• Low levels of serotonin in the brain have been linked to ADHD in children with a history of antisocial behavior suggesting that it may be genetically transmitted. 
• Low serotonin levels in the blood  combined with high levels of testosterone = aggression and violence.
• Serotonin is not linked to violence in females.

3.  Genetics

Some people have inherited a genetic configuration that predisposes them to criminal type behaviors. 

XYY Chromosome:  Richard Speck:

The problem in any genetic study is trying to separate out the influences of the social environment. 

Twin Studies

Identical (Monozygotic (MZ) share 100% of genes. 
Fraternal (dizygotic (DZ) share 50% of genes

Studies have shown greater behavioral similarities between identical rather than fraternal twins indicating that there is a genetic effect but the size of the effect is unknown.

Problem:
There are several methodological problems with twin studies including

• Cannot assume that he household environment will be the same for all the twins who grow up in the same house at the same time.
• Small samples

Adoptions Studies:

Study infants who have been separated from their natural parents at birth and raised in foster homes

Denmark Study:  Study of adoptions between 1927 and 1947.  Concluded that criminality of the biological parents had more influence on the child than the adoptive parents.

Subsequent adoption studies showed similar results. 

There seems to be a interaction between the genetic and environmental factors.  Those who have inherited anti social personality and temperamental traits are more likely to manifest criminal behaviors in the presence of deleterious environmental conditions.

Problems:

• Adopted children may not have similar environments and probably don't
• Non random assignment
• Concordance of identical twins reared together and those reared apart:

One study using this design found that conduct disorder and anti social personality disorder have been attributed to genetics.

Conduct disorder: antisocial behavior committed by children and adolescents.  It is a personality disorder identified in the DSM IV and includes such behaviors as truancy, fighting, destroying property, cruelty to animals, setting fires plus many others.

Other Research:

Studies show the following traits may be inherited:

• Temperament and anxiety levels
• IQ:  seems to be genetic but if the twins were raised under dramatically different social conditions, the IQ could be altered.
• Personality traits such as extroversion/introversion, openess, agreeableness and conscientiousness. These are not necessary related to IQ but the next two are
• psychopathology (anti social personality traits) such as impulsivity

In one study, attitudes and values are not genetically transmitted

• study on twins revealed that conduct disorder and ADHD in children is far more likely to be inherited than through  family environmental factors.

• genes may play a role in the workings of the neurotransmitters and the hormones.  one study found that there is a thrill seeking gene that controls dopamine levels and influences thrill seeking behavior.
• genes played a part in whether young  children were involved in aggressive antisocial behavior bullying.
• Conduct disorder has a 68% hereditability  Borderline Personality disorder has a 63% hereditability factor.
• Genetics also appears to play a major role in substance abuse as a predisposition towards addiction is probably an inherited trait.

4.  IQ

Measurement of Intelligence:

Alfred Binet: French Psychologist

Two Perspectives:

There are two theories involving IQ: the nature theory and the nurture theory:

• Nature Theory: Intelligence is an inherited trait and low intelligence as evidenced by low IQ scores is related to various behaviors including criminal.

• Nurture Theory:

Social environmental factors influence development of intelligence and IQ tests are culturally biased and inaccurate.

Edwin Sutherland, 1931 "Mental Deficiency and Crime":  no relationship between IQ scores and criminal behavior.

Remergence of IQ factor

1977 Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindlang :  IQ tests are valid predictors of intelligence and that IQ is more important than race or social class in predicting delinquency.

1985 James Q Wilson and Richard Hernstein published "Crime and Human Nature".  Low IQ resulted in poor school performance which in turn results in a child who act out his frustrations through criminal acts.

1994:  "Bell Curve" Richard Hernstein and Charles Murry:  Strong relationshp between cognitiveabilities and criminal behavior.

Criminals have an average IQ of 92 about 8 points below the average (100) and chronic offenders scores are even lower.

Recent studies:

• Children, especially teenagers within in the normal range of IQ but at the lower end of that range were more likely to be diagnosed with conduct disorder.
• Adult non criminal males with lower IQ's tended to be more aggressive. Possessing a high IQ is a protective factor against the expression of anti-social or aggressive behavior.
• IQ was found to be have a strong link to delinquency in a recent longitudinal study being conducted in Pittsburgh.  IQ was better at predicting delinquency than, socio-economic status, ethnicity, neighborhood and impulsivity which itself is strongly linked.

Can IQ be changed?

• Malnourished children who are given nutritional supplements using vitamins and minerals.  IQ points were raised from 4-7 points. 
• Researchers were able to increase the learning capability of mice by adding extra copies of a gene associated with memory and learning.
• IQ raised in at risk school children through vitamin and mineral supplementation

Evaluation:

IQ is probably a very important determinant of criminal behavior but it is not    the only one.  It is just one of many traits that contribute to the predisposition towards criminality.