The meaning of Nationality in the Soviet Union
(Leningrad, 1945-1991)

Outline

1. The Concepts of Nationality in America and the Soviet Union

2. Nationality, its meaning in the Soviet Union

3. Government anti-Semitism after World WAR II

4. The Reaction of Jews to anti-Semitism

5. Afterwards

The meaning of Nationality in the Soviet Union
(Leningrad, 1945-1991)

1. The Concepts of Nationality in America and the Soviet Union
In America there is absent a spirit of nationalism. We did not have documents where nationality fixed. Here only one's religion is important. If a person is an atheist, then I don't know how anyone can discover who a Jew is.

Although there was and is anti-Semitism in America, officially, there was and is no way to know who is Jewish. Perhaps a Jewish person would say he is not Jewish in order to preserve his safety and opportunities.

In America such discrimination was expressed against religious organization and buildings and against people known by reputation to be Jewish.

In the Soviet Union Jews did not know any thing about Jewish culture, religion and language. They did not dress with religious clothes and wear kipa in the street as in America. They were atheists.

Maybe Americans did not understand how the Soviet Government knew who the Jews were and how they would organize anti-Semitism against them.

2. Nationality, its meaning in the Soviet Union

2.1 Where is Nationality declared?
Each Soviet person had an internal passport where nationality was designated.

A passport rarely was required in daily life. It would have been necessary when you entered work, went to a government office, moved to another apartment, entered the institute, went to the hospital etc.

2.2 How nationalities identified themselves
When a child was born in the Soviet Union, the parents received "a Birth certificate." It contained the child's last and first names and the father's first name*. The parents gave only the first name of the child
---------------------
*In Russia official naming consisted of a first name and father's name. Example: The name Tatiana Ivanovna has the first name "Tatiana," and "Ivan" is the first name of father.
-----------------------
The Birth certificate also contains the last and first name of the father and the father's father's first name and his nationality. The birth certificate also contains the last and first name of the mother and the father's mother's first name and her nationality.

A child received a passport at 16 years of age. His or her last and first and father's first name and nationality were written in the passport from the Birth certificate. In a mixed marriage the child could choose the nationality and last name only of one of the parents. If you were married, you could take the last name of husband {wife} or live with your last name.

3. Government anti-Semitism after World WAR II

3.1 Government Anti-Semitism. Display of anti-Semitism
Government anti-Semitism began after would war II and I think it still exists today. The newspaper and TV created anti-Semitic situations. Israel was always represented to be the aggressor. There was always a fight against Zionism. In the USSR the word "Zionist" was a curse word just as the word "fascist."

The situation for Jews was particularly dangerous when the Communist party carried on the struggle against cosmopolitanism* (1947), when there were the affairs of the doctors** (the doctors' plot, 1952), etc. In this period many Jews were dismissed from work and always had a problem finding a new job.
---------------------
*The struggle against cosmopolitanism is a manifestation of Russian nationalism. Russian is the best of all nationalities. Russians made all discoveries. Communists explained that "cosmopolite" is a person without a homeland. "Cosmopolite" was a strongly pejorative word in the Soviet Union. The paradox was that it was the Communists who deprived the Jews of their native culture and then called them "cosmopolitans."
-
**Affairs of the doctors: The Jewish doctors from the hospital of the Kremlin were accused of killing statesmen. Those charges were acknowledged false after Stalin's death.
-------------------------
Newspaper and TV never used the word "Jews." The words "Israel, Zionism, Cosmopolitanism" always were associated with "Jews." The papers used such sentences: "Without kin cosmopolites," or "killers in white coats." That was accompanied by a caricature of the persons with a stereotypical Jewish hooked nose.

You must know that in the Soviet Union there was no Jewish district. People couldn't buy an apartment where they wished. The buying or receiving of an apartment from government was a big problem. You received an apartment where the government gave it to you. I did not know any buildings where Jews were more than 10%. (In Leningrad and others cities nearly all the people lived in the big apartment houses.) Our outstanding building in Leningrad had three Jewish families out of 45 families. Jews were always a minority in each region.

We did not have any Yeshiva or other religious school. In the 80's, beginnings with 'perestroika', some Jewish boys were sent to Hungary to a Yeshiva. The KGB checked those persons.

3.2 Kindergarten and school
When a child entered kindergarten or school, he presented his "Birth certificate." The class book contained the first and last name and also the nationality of the child. (The nationality of a child was written along with the nationality her mother.) The nationalities in the class book were of interesting for the children. (In the Soviet Union the government owned and conducted all kindergartens and schools.) If you went to the hospital, you had to present your passport and the staff worker filled out a form that also asked for nationality. There were more similar examples. If someone knew your nationality, then anyone else could know your nationality from him or her.

3.3 The problem with work
The chiefs of personnel of the businesses belonged to the KBG and were always anti-Semitic. They had a secret instruction. You had to know when you searched for work in the Soviet Union that you didn't send resumes to businesses and wait for an answer. You had to go to the businesses to their personnel department. You showed your passport where the nationality was indicated. If you were suitable for the job you had to fill out a long form that also asked for your nationality. When you went from the street to the boss of the personnel department and showed your passport that indicated "Jew," he would refuse to accept you for this work for a different reason.

Also there were businesses and institutes (colleges), which Jews were not allowed to enter (KGB, police, etc.). Jews knew that. To feel the pain of anti Semitism, you just had to look for work. (In the Soviet Union there was not any unemployment.)

3.4 Situation at work
The Jews find situations in businesses through the help of acquaintances (maybe as a supervisor, a chief engineer) or upon direction from the ministry from Moscow after graduating from the institute (college).

Nevertheless, when a Jew started a new job, he always had to keep his ears open. All the other workers were aware of the presence of a Jew. A Jew would be better if he was a communist or he had connections. The authorities gave Jews harder and less interesting work. Much depended upon his conduct. Your situation became intolerable if you couldn't arrange a relationship with your supervisor and co-worker.

The Jews hardly ever changed jobs because they were obedient. On the other hand the Russian supervisor often had Jewish substitutes. That was good for the Russian supervisors because Jewish people did not replace the Russian supervisors even if the supervisors were stupid.

Jews who were members of the Communist party, especially veterans of the party* felt government anti-Semitism less.
----------------------
*A veteran is a member of the party for at least 50 years.
-----------------------
That can also encourage one to join the party. Such a man also receives higher status. I was twice offered into the party, the first time my immediate superior, and the second the secretary of the party of my department.

They offered to give me a recommendation for entrance as a member of the party. If you want to refuse, you say: "I will think about it" or "I am not ready to become a member of the party." It was difficult to be accepted into the party. There were restrictions, especially for engineers and white-collar workers.

3.5 About Reference
The Soviet person often had to receive an official reference from his work place, as when you wanted to stand in line for an apartment or a garden plot or a telephone, etc.

The form of reference:

                         Give citizen [ last name] [first name] [father's first name]

                         Party membership [member of Communist or non Party]

                         by nationality [Russian or Jewish or ...]

                        REFERENCE [The quality of your work and your philosophy]

         Signed by
                          Director (manager) of the plant   [signature]
                          Party leader   [signature]
                          President trade union   [signature]
                          

                                                                                    [Seal plant] [Date]

_____________________________________
*They submitted it to the triangle in own division then the triangle of a higher level.
_____________________________________________

3.6 The problem with emigration
The new problem arose with the emigration of Jews in the 80's. In Leningrad the chief newspaper "Leningradskaya Pravda," which means "Leningrad's truth," often printed threatening articles against the refusniks, teachers of Hebrew, students, and their relatives. The newspapers and TV falsified information.

3.7 State and people
The best reward for Jews was when Russians told them in private: "You are good Jews, you aren't like the others" or "You don't look like a Jew."

Sometimes the leader said: "Did you understand that I can't promote you?" Very often the higher leader criticized the lower leader for "impurity of manpower." Another expression was when one leader called to another leader: "It is not one head but the entire synagogue." He couldn't say 'Jew'.

The people under a dictatorship can't express themselves. I firmly believe that the majority of people supported anti-Semitism. The government pursued the following policy against Jews in recent years: It didn't hire and didn't fire them.

One poet said:
"I filled out a form that I am an invalid of the 5th group
In the place "nationality" I wrote "yes."*
-----------------------
*In the Soviet Union the invalids were divided into groups according to severity and type of illness. That depended upon various illnesses. The place for "nationality" had the number 5.
-------------------------

4. Reaction of Jews to anti-Semitism

4.1 The Meaning of Nationality
The indication in the passport of the nationality had a big meaning in life. In a mixed marriage the child often chooses the nationality "Russian." Some Jews get married to Russians so that the children will have a better life. I knew a completely Jewish family in which the child had a passport that indicated that he was Russian. How was that possible? I don't know. If the child indicated that his nationality was Russian, he could enter the universities where Jews were not allowed to enter.

4.2 Reaction to anti-Semitism
One woman told me: "It is a very serious problem when a child knows that he or she is Jewish. It is a tragedy. A child must be prepared for that."
I think that 50% of the Jews take steps to lessen the impact of anti-Semitism.

4.3 New idealism
As a reaction to anti-Semitism over 6o-80 years there arose a new idealistic movement. Some Jews studied Hebrew and Jewish culture with other Jews. Jewish life was experienced secretly in private apartments.
Their self-esteem was increased when they said that they wanted to leave for Israel and they really did go to Israel. (They didn't change their decision in Vienna and didn't go to America.)

5. Afterwards

5.1 Jewish Name

The destruction of the Jewish way of life ended in the year 1930. Before 1930 Jewish parents gave their newly born child a Jewish first name and after this time a Russian name.

The children, who were born before 1930, had a Jewish first name and the first name of the father as a Jewish surname. The children born in the period 1930-1960 had a Russian first name, and the Jewish first name of the father as a surname. Children that were born after 1960 had a Russian first name and first name of the father, Russian.

To be treated well Jews changed the first name of the father. Example: A Jew was named Peter Michailovich although on his passport he had the name Peter Moshevich.

Jewish parents sometimes changed their first name officially, so that their life would be more comfortable. When my daughter was born (1956), the relatives began to insist on my changing my first name "Itska." I changed my name to "Ilya," because my daughter would have her father's name "Itskovna." This name would have been a disadvantage in the Soviet Union. The changing of the first name in ZAGS* took more than one year.
---------------------
*ZAGS, registry office, are the same as the American Court.
-----------------------
The office workers made this work intentionally very long. That change had to be made on many documents, including one that required explaining the change.

5.2 Some Cases

Only Jews who were born before 1924 would have knowledge about Jewish religion, language and literature. Those were the Jews who in 1990 {that was the end of the dictatorship} were then 65 years old. The Jews who were younger then 65 in 1990 knew nothing about Jewish heritage. They were Jews only on their passports.

Some Russian Jews told me (maybe specially): "Pork or pork shashlik is very good." They are very far from Jewish tradition.

Here in Boston in the Jewish community, when I go with the kipa, some Russian Jews ask me: "Are you Religious?" I answered: "Why am I religious? I arrived as you from the Soviet Union, but I hope that G-d will help me."

Here one man very often debated with me. He embarrassed me because he said that I did not love my motherland. He was a retired military officer, communist party official at the plant. I remembered well one phrase about a man: "We accepted him into the party." I told him that the Soviet Union was not my motherland but a stepmother. He again and again returned to the issues of love of motherland. At last I understood that I wanted to tell him, "We had a different experience in the Soviet Union." After that he did not argue with me about that.

Communist committed many crimes against the Soviet people, but for me, a Soviet Jew, the most important crime of the communists was depriving the Jews of their Jewish roots.

However some Jews who were born after maybe 1960 (in 1990 they were less then 30 years old) could connect themselves to Jewish tradition. They studied English and Hebrew and went to the synagogue. They are well educated and very clever people.

In my opinion the solution to the Jewish problem in Russia and in the states of the former Soviet Union would be for all the Jews to depart from there.

Home | Email Us