|
Archaeology is simply a
way of looking at the world
HUNTER-GATHERERS 搜擸時代 For most of the time since humans first evolved, they have hunted or scavenged animals and birds, fished, and collected eggs and shellfish. Early peoples also gathered a wide range of plant foods-berries, roots, tubers, nuts, and fruit _ when available. The lifestyle of the hunter-gatherers was mainly nomadic, with groups moving around as they followed migrating animals and exploited plant resources. Although we tend to think of these people as cave dwellers, they used many open-air and temporary campsites as well. Only a small amount of archaeololgical evidence from these very early periods has survived, but it ranges from the stone handaxes found in Africa to the harpoon points of the Arctic hunters. Several types of early art have also been uncovered from this period, including stunning cave paintings and portable art, such as bones carved into animal shapes. These finds reflect the essential, practical, and spiritual elements of our human experience that have lasted for more than one million years.
THE NEOLITHIC 新石器時代 About 10,000 years ago, some hunting communities began to cultivate plants and domesticate animals to support themselves, while persisting with traditional hunter-gatherer activities, relying on the use of stone for their tools and weapons. This process of management and selection took place over many generations. The crops grown and animals domesticated by early farmers varied from region to region, just as staple foods do today. By tracing the biological development of different species, we can map the origins and spread of early agriculture across the world. Once they had established a constant food source, many Neolithic communities began to build permanent settlements. This allowed a wider range of objects to be used, including pottery for storage and cooking, and stimulated trade between cultures. These durable structures and objects survive in much better condition than the ephemeral traces of their hunter-gatherer predecessors. As a result, we can readily see the impact of farming on the physical landscape, as well as on developing urban communities.
THE MONUMENTAL ERA 巨大變化紀元 From the pyramids of ancient Egypt to the stone circles and burial mounds of Europe, monuments are the largest and most impressive structures surviving from earlier times. Dating from the 4th millennium BC, they probably had a variety of religious, funerary, and public uses, although together they represent a common phase in the development of many different societies. The building of such large structures signifies the growing ability of communities to mobilize large quantities of resources, including labour. The structures also reflect the power of the community leaders and the cultural traditions of each society. In some areas the monuments accompany the development of the first cities of the world, but for those in other areas, we still know very little about the everyday life and settlements of the people who built them. Archaeologists studying these structures and the artefacts associated with them can usually learn a great deal about their construction and the technology and materials that were used to build them. The actual function of such monuments, however, has proved far more difficult to discover and comprehend.
THE BRONZE AGE 青銅時代 During the Bronze Age in the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and later in the New World (the Americas), large-scale urban centres developed almost exclusively around fertile river valleys, such as those of the Nile, the Indus, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. Stable agricultural systems, often based on irrigation and water management, allowed large populations to congregate in specific areas, where they produced food more efficiently and developed specialized crafts. These early urban centres had certain features in common. Most were fortified, with planned streets, elaborate public facilities, and great temple complexes, which provided a central focus for the city dwellers. The first evidence of writing is associated with these civilizations, probably because it became essential for the administration of long-distance trading networks. Political and administrative power soon became centralized, and complex social hierarchies developed, leading to the creation of independent city-states. Headed by powerful rulers, the city-states managed their surrounding areas and, after swift unification and expansion, soon controlled huge empires.
THE IRON AGE 黑鐵時代, (人類的)沒落時代 Evidence from the Iron Age allows us, for the first time, to construct a detailed picture of the daily life of the different types of people living in Iron Age societies, including farmers, warriors, craftsmen, and chieftains. Along with the many iron objects found throughout Europe and eastern Asia, numerous farmsteads, monuments, and settlements also remain in the modern landscape. Great fortified centres of power survive, particularly from the developing empires of Western Asia and China, with monumental buildings and artefacts, and evidence for ritual worship, trade, and growing industry. In the west, this period is associated with the Celts _ an assorted collection of peoples who lived throughout Europe and who produced a distinctive artistic style. Many of the best-preserved remains from this archaeological period are defensive structures, such as the hillforts of Europe, the fortified citadels of Western Asia, and the monuments of China and Africa.
THE CLASSICAL AGE 古典時期 Greek and Roman societies were city-based, commercialized, and multinational communities, Roman citizens living in Ephesus in Turkey would have recognized many familiar features in a small frontier town in Gaul, as well as many differences. When the Roman empire finally collapsed in the 5th century AD, a huge administrative network of taxes and officials, supported by an infrastructure of roads, aqueducts, and trading routes, had been operating across a large area of the world for several centuries. The materially orientated culture of the Classical period has left a large number of building, monuments, and works of art that are familiar to us today. Greek and Roman literature also remains an important part of our heritage. Despite this wealth of evidence, archaeological investigation of Classical sites is still necessary to provide a context for these great public works and to uncover the day-to-day economy and lives of Classical peoples.
THE DARK AGES 黑暗時期 Following the collapse of the Roman empire in the 5th century AD, there was a long period of disruption and change across Europe and the Mediterranean region. Out of this instability, early medieval states and kingdoms developed under leaders such as Charlemagne and Alfred the Great, while Muslim empires dominated the Mediterranean lands. The power of the Christian Church increased in Europe, but came under constant attack from Arabs in the south and Vikings in the north. The Vikings of Scandinavia, who were essentially seafaring traders, established new sea routes and became the first Europeans to land in America. Though this period has been known traditionally as the Dark Age, new evidence has shed light on the varied cultures of this transitional era.
THE MEDIEVAL AGE 中古世紀 Emerging after the states and chiefdoms of the Dark Ages, the medieval period laid the foundations for many modern European states. At the same time, the Mediterranean region and Western Asia were dominated by the Byzantine and Islamic empires, which have left distinct remains. In western Europe, many nations were based on the rigid hierarchy of the feudal system, from the king and his lords down to the peasants, while a separate Christian hierarchy existed, with the pope at its head. Thus medieval society was divided into three distinct groups-those who fought (the upper classes), the who prayed (the clergy), and those who worked (the peasants). These three types are reflected in the castles, churches, monasteries, and villages still remaining. While trade and crusades brought many developments, by the 16th century, changes in religious and scientific thought and a growth in world trade signalled the end of this way of life.
NEW SETTLEMENTS 新移民時期 Following the discovery of new land in the Americas, Africa, and Asia by the Europeans in the 15th and 16th centuries, great opportunities for trade appeared, and most European countries pushed for an extension of their economic interests. The search for gold, spices, slaves, and other commodities was led by the Spanish and Portuguese, and France, Britain, and the Netherlands soon joined the fray. It quickly became apparent that there was more than just trade potential in these new areas. Pressure brought about by increases in population across Europe led to a hut for more land and resources, and new colonies abroad seemed to provide a solution. The initial problem faced by these fledgling colonies was survival. Many people died of disease or hunger within their first year in the colony, and the only wok that was available was physically very hard. In addition, the settlers had to rely on the indigenous people for advice on local plant and animal resources and for access to the land. This advice was exchanged for goods wanted by the locals-beads, metal tools, and eventually firearms to replace arrows and spears. In effect, often highly technological European societies met head-on with local, essentially Stone Age cultures, and the rights of the indigenous people were generally ignored.
THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 工業發展時期 The invention of steam power lay at the heart of the Industrial Revolution, and the ensuring construction dramatically altered the landscape of many countries. The world’s first industrial centres grew up close to large coalfields-the Ruhr in Germany, Birmingham in England, and Pennsylvania in the United States all had and accessible and seemingly inexhaustable supply of coal to support their burgeoning industries. Steam power, combined with the new inventions of the age, increased output and led to the new concept of mass production. The precision of the machinery improved product quality, and the interchangeability of mass-produced parts underlined the accuracy and consistency of the machining process. Objects produced by such processes no longer bear the stamp of an individual craftsman. This makes identification difficult, since all the objects manufactured from one type of machine will look the same. Because of this uniformity, and because of the sheer number of objects from this period, archaeologists have relied more on documents and plans to trace the origins and distribution of their finds.
|
