Prior to 1430, there are few Chinese chronicles offering data on Taiwan (1), though it is evident that Taiwan was known to the ancient Chinese. It is clear that in antiquity the island was populated by Malayo-Polynesian aborigines (2) who had spread from Madagascar (3), off the coast of Africa, through the Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos, to Hawaii and other islands throughout the Pacific.

Early Han (4) contact with the island is sketchy. While a history of China from four thousand years ago mentions "Taiwan fuzhi", there is no evidence that there were actually Chinese people on the island.(5) During the Qin Dynasty (221-206 B.C.), Xu Fu was sent to the eastern sea and reached a land named Yi-Chou, possibly the island of Taiwan. (6)

During the Three Kingdoms Period (AD 220-280), th Kingdom of Wu sent several expeditions to Taiwan, each with thousands of men. (7) Military influence was extended over the island, though there is no indication that actually control was exercised.

The Sui Dynasty (AD 589-618) prevailed over its enemies according to an eighth century chronicler, including Liuqiu. (8) Which islands comprised Liuqui (or the earlier YiZhou) is the subject of some debate. Japanese scholars generally hold that it referred to Taiwan, while several Chinese scholars argue that it was a vague reference to the entire island chain from Japan to the Philippines. (9)

In AD 607, Emperor Yangdi sent Zhu Guan to explore the eastern sea. The land of Liuqiu was reached, but no conservation was possible due to language difficulties.(10) Four years later, General Chen Ling returned with an interpreter and ten thousand troops. The tribes met were unfriendly and conflict ensued, resulting in victories by Chen before his return to China. (11) It does not appear that constant contact was maintained at this time, however, as the Tang relationship with Liuqiu is unclear. (12) Though the Tang was powerful, problems both in the northeast and the northwest prevented concerted efforts in the seas (13). Later, as it became clear that the Song Dynasty was about to fall, a group known as the Hakka (guest people) migrated en masse, one third of all Hakka in Guangdong Province, to Taiwan from 1250-1279.(14)

The thirteenth century saw China overrun by Mongols from the northern steppelands. The Mongols, who had invaded localesas disparate as Indonesia and Hungary, founded the Yuan Dynasty in 1280, and ruled the whole of CHina for 88 years. Emperor Shizu was active in cultivating the seas. In 1292, he sent Admiral Yang Tsiang to establish a base from which to attack Taiwan. (15) While it is unknown if the islands he found were indeed Taiwan, he may have actually reached Okinawa. (16) Emperor Shundi (1340-68) established an administrative post at Penghu (17) as part of Fujian Province (18).

A native Han dynasty, the Ming (1368-1644) rose from the ashes of the Yuan. Taizi, the first Ming emperor, was passive to the eastern seas. Kuo identifies two reasons for this: 1) the Mongols were still a threat to the north, and 2) the Yuan were thwarted in its efforts in Japan. (19) During this perios, Japanese pirats were rampant in the eastern seas. Due to this, in 1388, the Ming government ordered all coastal inhabitants to move inland, prohibited migration to offshore islands, and the CHinese administrative post at Penghu was abolished. (20)

Emperor Chenzi was more active in the seas. In the first three decades of the fifteenth century, Zheng He led at least seven expeditions of massive fleets, the size of which would not be matched again until the twentieth century, to the Indonesian islands, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and even to the east coast of Africa. (21) While where is no direct evidence that Zheng ever visited Taiwan, many scholars believe he had (22), and considering that he voyaged so far in the South Seas, it seems reasonable to suspect that he would visit an island so nearby, that the Ming certainly knew was there.

Not much is heard again concerning Taiwan until it caught the eyes of the Japanese toward the end of the sixteenth century. The Japanese sent an ultimatum that tribute be paid in 1593, but it was ignored. Military expeditions sent in 1601 and 1615 were both unsuccessful. (23)

At about this time, the Europeans, particularly the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch entered the scene. The Portuguese acquired Macau and the Spanish grabbed the Philippines, both in the sixteenth century. The Dutch, already entrenched in modern-day Indonesia, wanted in on the China trade (24). The Chinese isolated Penghu economically, forcing the Dutch from the islands. In the years from 1607-1622, the Dutch asked for the right to build a trading post to no avail. The Dutch responded by launching another expedition against Penghu. Admiral Kornelius Rayerszoon led a fleet of eight ships and two thousand men. After a request for trading privileges was denied, many Chinese junks were destroyed, and the inhabitants were forced to construct a new fort. (25)

In 1624, a Chinese fleet of forty ships and ten thousand men formed a blockade of Penghu, and the Dutch were forced to remove to Taiwan, with Ming acquiescence. At this time, the Dutch claimed possession of the island. (26)

In the course of the next four decades. first the Japanese, then the Spanish attempted to establish a presence on the island. Both failed. (27) However, the Dutch did not exercise control over large parts of the island. Their power was concentrated around modern-day Tainan and Anping, in the southwest of the island, and Chilung (Jilong) (28) in the north. (29) Their rule was harsh, particularly to the Han Chinese living on the island, creating a situation ripe for popular revolt as 1661 approached.(30)

While there is no evidence of large-scale Han immigration prior to 1661, it is known that there was indeed settlement, mostly from the southern provinces as early as the twelfth century. (31) Sovereignty over the island at this time is also unclear. Like many areas of the globe in this era, there was no central government over the vast majority of the island. It could be argued that the Chinese regarded it as a frontier, much as the United States and Russia regarded their frontier territories in their periods of westward and eastward expansion respectively.

However, there is no evidence of an attempt by the Chinese to even open up a governmental post east of Penghu, and that was abolished centuries earlier. Accordingly, it can not be argued that China exercised sovereignty over Taiwan in 1661, but, like much of the globe at this time, Taiwan's legal status was that of res nulius.(32)

During Taiwan's "Dutch Interlude", the Ming Dynasty was overrun by a foreign people, the Manchu(33). The Manchu, invading from an area in the northeast known as Manchuria in the West, founded the Qing Dynasty in 1644. They would still rule China as the twentieth century dawned. As the Ming were overthrown in the north, their remnants fled southward and maintained their resistance (34) in a patter repeated from the past, and would be repeated again in 1949.

It was these circumstances that saw the birth of Zheng Chenggong (better known in the West as Koxinga) on August 27, 1624 in Hirado, Japan. Zheng is noted in history for two things: 1) his resistance to the Manchus,and 2) the recovery of Taiwan from the Dutch.(35) Zheng's father was Zheng Zhilong, a Fujianese pirate who married a woman of the Tagawa family of Japan. While a pirate, he did not interfere with Chinese ships, but with European ones.(36)

Zheng Zhilong entered the service of the Ming in 1628, and controlled the largest fleet in the straits. (37) However, after the Manchus took Nanjing in 1645, the elder Zheng surrendered to the new dynasty.(38) The younger Zheng refused to surender. As the Ming were holding out in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Shaanxi, Zheng was holding out in the southeastern coastal areas.(39) After nearly taking Nanjing in 1659, Zheng was driven back to his base at Xiamen(40), where he successfully repulsed a Qing attack.(41) However, Zheng realized that a larger permanent base was necessary for his long-term goal of retaking China for the Ming.(42)

With this in mind, Zheng landed in Taiwan on April 29, 1661 with four hundred ships and twenty-five thousand men. Zheng's forces were promptly swelled by local discontent Minnanese, immediately encircled the Dutch encampments. (43) Fort Provintia surrendered on May 4.(44) Batavia (45) heard the bad news on June 21. A Dutch fleet consiting of ten vessels and three hundred men arrived on August 12.(46) The newly arriving Dutch forces were no match for Zheng, losing battles in September and October. Finally, after nine months of siege, the Dutch surrendered, and reliquinshed control of the island to Zheng (47).

It has been argued that at this time, Taiwan fell under Chinese sovereignty,(48) but I must reject such claims. While Ming rule extended to the island its first ever Chinese government, since the Ming had fallen twenty years earlier, Zheng can not credibly claim to represent Chinese authority. The Qing is also unable to claim sovereignty ebcause, though it was the successor to the Ming, Taiwan was outside Ming authority in 1644, when the Ming fell.

While Zheng, who died in 1662, was loyal to the Ming to the end, his government and that of his son, Zheng Jing, acted as though it were an independent state, though it never declared itself as such. For the next twenty years, the rule of the Zheng family led to a prosperous trading society.(49) When Zheng Jing died in 1681, two years of palace intrigue gave the Qing the opening they were looking for. Shi Lang sailed a fleet from Fujian to Penghu,where Zheng's entire fleet was destroyed. When Shi's troops arrived, Zheng Geshuang surrendered Taiwan to the Qing.(50)

It was at this time, 1683, that sovereignty of Taiwan definitively became Beijing's by conquest. Taiwan was incorporated formally into Fujian Province, but pressing concerns elsewhere led largely to innattention by Qing Authorities.(51) This was not a case of total neglect by the Qing though. Largely due to Shi Lang, Emperor Kangxi officially established the prefecture of Taiwan on May 27, 1684.(52) Shi's primary purpose was military, not economic. Zheng's officials were transferred to China, while those who migrated during the Zheng era were ordered to return, leaving fields and trade abandoned and production on the wane.(53) Following this, however, many Chinese continued to migrate to Taiwan, and the island developed during Qing rule.(54) The Qing government ordered a mapping of Taiwan in 1714 to determine its size, an "office of imperial supervisor for inspecting Taiwan" was created in 1721, and the administration of the island was reconstituted in 1727. For a short time, from 1732 to 1736, the Qing encouraged migration to the island (56). While for most of the eighteenth century, migration to Taiwan was prohibited by law, it continued due to lax enforcement and encouragement to migrate by certain local officials. (57)

It would be neither fair nor appropriate to portary this time of the commencement of Qing rule to the arrival of the British as peaceful and tranquil for Taiwan. It was not. Most of China resisted the idea of Manchus ruling China. However, this resistance was even more fierce in Taiwan that in China.

From 1683 to 1843, there were fifteen major rebellions against the government(58). The first rebellion of significance occurred in 1701 and arose from the district of Kagi. Liu Chow (Zhou), the leader of this rebellion, was captured in 1702.(59) Though this rebellion tauht the Imperial Government in Beijing that Taiwan needed more attention, the local population was not placated and remained restless.

About ten thousand Manchu troops were continously stationed to watch over a tinderbox of an island that consisted of three major classes. The lowest group was the "non-civilized aboriginies." They remained unsubdued and retreated into the mountains rather than submit to Minnan settlers. The second group were the 'civilized aboriginies.' The submitted to the Minnan and even adopted many of their customs. However, in the early days, theyr numbers were not large. Finally, there were the Chinese settlers. These settlers are divided into two groups. One group were the Hakka. They were China's equivalent of the Gypsies in Southeast Europe. They do not truly have a homeland in China and wandered from place to place. The second group was the Minnan(60). Like in China, they looked down on the Hakka. This was a tinderbox of an island that the Manchu government tried to control.

To do this, Imperial authorities kept officials on the island for three-year terms and prohibited any close acquaintances between officials and islanders. This had the opposite of its intended effect, as officials knew that they only had three years to squeeze the population to secure their own comfortable retirements. Naturally, this, along with the haughty and tyrannical manner of the mandarins, fueled even further resentment and hatred of the Imperial Government. No part of the Chinese (Qing) Empire felt revolt quite like Taiwan.

During the early eighteenth century, forests were declared government property. This included camphoe, which was one of Taiwan's most important commodities. The penalty for the unauthorized felling of a tree was death. This struck at the economic heart of many residents of the island. In 1720, upwards of two hundred people were decapitated (61). A serious earthquake then became a sign to the people that it was time to revolt.

Chou Yinkwei, taking advantage of the people's hatred of the Qing Government, declared himself to the people's cause. The rebellion continued to grow despite early Imperial victories until the capital of Taiwan-fu was finally taken by the insurgents. With the fall of Taiwan-fu, officials fled to Xiamen in China. Chou Yinkwei, maintaining his Imperial rights prohibited plunder and protected lives and property. The populace of the island had increased confidence as a result.

However, a new Qing army of twenty-two thousand soldiers embarked at Xiamen. When the army landed at Tamsui, they burned the rebel fleet and proceeded to win easy victories. An edict came from the emperor demanding that his subjects in Taiwan be treated with mercy. This mercy did not extend to Chou Yinkwei, who was taken in a bamboo cage to Beijing.

For a tme, due to Emperor Kanghe's benevolence, there was relative calm, but when emperor's change, so do imperial policies. When Kanghe died, his successor took vicious measures to subjugate the island. Forces were increased in Taiwan and a line of forts was erected. These were done to surpress rebellions spirit. Unfortunately, utmost misery and wretchedness followed. Making matters worce was a terrific storm in 1723. Unsurprisingly, this resulted in further rebellion.

Though the rebellion was quelled, numerous other rebellions followed. Rebellions in 1731, 1786, 1795, 1808, 1809, 1824, 1826, 1830-33, 1834, 1844, 1852 and 1853 along with countless minor revolts and conflicts further secured Taiwan's reputation as a restless land.

It it clear that for the only period of time under which Taiwan and China were ruled by the same government, Taiwan was treated as a colony and a rebellious one at that. Taiwanese people never accepted Qing sovereignty over the island.

China likes to claim that Taiwan has always been a part of China. The fact is that Taiwan didn't fall under the sovereignty of the same government as China until 1683, and that was of their common Manchu conquerors. It is also equally clear that such occupation was not accepted by the people of Taiwan.

While Taiwan was largely isolated from events shaping China in the eighteenth century, this came to an abrupt halt in the ninteenth. The primary British export to China was opium, a substance then illegal in China. Restrictions against opium were stregthened in 1838, following which, incoming opium was intercepted and destroyed.(62) As 1839 progressed, tensions grew worse. In July, a Chinese villager was killed in a fight with British and American sailors, whom the Chinese demanded should be handed over to them. British viceroy Charles Elliot requested that British ships approach the Pearl River. This led to the first exchange of the Opium War on November 3.(63)

The first confrontation in Taiwan took place nearly two years into the war on September 30, 1841. The British transport Nerbudda shelled a fort in Ersawan before being wrecked off Keelung. The following March, the brig Ann wrecked off the coast of Taiwan. Of the 189 men captured, 41 died and 139 were executed; only nine survived to be repatriated following the war. (64)

Events elsewhere would not loosen its grip on Taiwan. In 1850, the British attempted to get coaling rights for their ships in Taiwan. This was denied by Liu Yunge, Governor-General of Fujian and Zhejiang, who initiated efforts to strengthen Taiwan's defenses.(65) However, the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 opened up Keelung and Tamsui to Western ships.(66)

Happenings in China itself also had a profound impact on events in Taiwan. Hong Xiuquan, who fashioned himself as the brother of Christ, captures Nanjing in 1853 and made it the capital of his [i]Taiping Tianguo.(67) The [i]San He Hui (Triad Society) on Taiwan was so encouraged, it led an uprising in June of the same year. Though the strength of the rebellion shocked the island, it was surpressed. (68) A second revolt was led from 1862-64 by Dai Zhaozhuan. He declared himself the East King of Taiping Tianguo, but was opposed by the literati due to the new religious ideas it represented,(69) namely Christianity. Later that decade, the United States navy made an attack on Lang Chiao in the south, but nothing more came of it.(70)

The 1870s saw another threat to Taiwan, though this time it was not from the south or west, but from the north. A vessel from Liuqui(71) was driven ashore on Taiwan in 1871. Fifty-four of the sixty-six survivors were killed by tribesmen.(72) Since Liuqiu had been a tributary state of China for centuries, the Qing held that it had nothing to do with Japan. China then set about investigating the event, and compensating and repatriating survivors.(73) However, Japan incorporated the Kingdom of the Ryukyu's (Liuqiu) into its territory on October 16, 1872.(74)

Japan led a punative expedition against Taiwan in 1874, though it was apparently done against the wished of the Japanese government. (75) In June of that year, John A. Bingham and Benjamin Avery (United States Ministers in Japan and China respectively) formally acknowledged that Taiwan was a part of China (the Qing Empire), apparently in the form of official communications with the ministers of the Japanese government.(76)

Despite this recognition by the United States, a debate ensued in September between Japanese Ambassador Okubo and the Zongli Yamen(77). On September 14, Okubo challenged China's claim of sovereignty on several points. He noted than "an effective control and administration of the territory must be enforced in order to be recognized as having property rights and sovereignty over the territory" in accordance with international law. He pointed out that China had not proven it controlled the territory. Okubo also pointed out that the people owned their land through reclamation, not government titles, and asked for a reply to two questions. Why do the aboroginies remain uncivilized? Why has China not ensured the safety of mariners on Taiwan's coast, as every other country had done on theirs?(78)

The Chinese response came two days later. Zongli YamenZongli Yamen was notified, and Japan made no such notification.(79)

After several more exchanges were made, Japan acquiesced on Taiwan for the time being, and China implicitly recognized Japanese sovereignty over Liuqiu.(80)

The next threat to Taiwan would once again come from the south, and the dispute would again begin in a far away territory. China had claimed suzerain right over Annam (Northern Viet Nam) for centuries. However, the French, already entrenched in Cochin China(81), now had designs on all of IndoChina. While war broke out in November 1883, hostilities remained confined to the Sino-Vietnamese border until May 1884.(82) The French had hope to occupy all of Taiwan, and to effect this, the fort at Keelong was fired upon by Admiral Lespes on August 5, 1884. It was smashed in four hours, followed by the landing of more than one thousand marines.(83) The French advance was beaten back, as was another attack made in October.(84)

In the Treaty of Tianjin, signed on June 9, 1885, the Qing relinquished suzerain authority over Annam. The French withdrew from Taiwan.(85)

Following the Sino-French War, the development of Taiwan became a priority of the Qing government. Late in 1885, Taiwan was made a province of China, and Liu Mingjian, who was sent to the island to stregthen the island's maritime defense during the Sino-French War, was made governor of China's first island province.(86)

Kuo identified six accomplishments made under governor Liu's watch from 1885 until his forced resignation in May 1891. These accomplishments were: 1) The stregthening of the native pacification program, 2) reorganization of the province's finances, 3) building up of Taiwan's land and maritime defenses, 4) construction of a modern communications and transportation system, 5) development of the island's economy, 6) development of science and technology education. (87)

In the six years of Liu's governorship, Taiwan had become a model that could have been an example for China. Instead, Liu's successor turned out to be just another bureaucrat, and reversed many of Liu's successes. (88)

Taiwan was in for another rude awakening on May 8, 1895. A war that started hundreds of miles away in Korea, and never reached the shores of Taiwan, resulted in Taiwan being surrendered to Imperial Japan.

The term handing over taiwan to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki was vigorously oppsed by the Taiwanese (89). Tang Qingsong proclaimed the Republic of Taiwan on May 28, 1895.(90) Unfortunately for the Taiwanese, the republic wasn't able to resist the coming Japanese. Keelong was occupied on June 3, and Taipei was taken five days later. By the middle of Augist, Tainan was taken (91), and Taiwan would be under the yoke of the Japanese for the next fifty years.

The question I sought to answer entering this chapter concerned the sovereignty of Taiwan prior to Shimonoseki. Taiwan became a sovereign territory of the Qing Empire in 1683, when they wrested the island from the Zheng family. I hold to this despite the spirit of rebellion and dissent that existed on the island, though that can't be ignored. Sovereignty was confirmed by conquest, confirmed by an occupation of 212 years. This DOES NOT mean that Taiwan was a part of China. Taiwan was administered as a territory of the Qing Empire for more than 200 years before it was finally made a province of China in 1885. This sovereignty resided in the Qing Empire until it was ceded to Imperial Japan following the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War. They would have sovereign power over Taiwan for the next fifty years.

[Taiwan for Taiwanese] Taiwan's True History (Not the CCP version)

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