 Return to Chapter 6 |
Return to Table of Contents
|  Advance to Chapter 8 |
| Section | Page |
| Viral Infections. | 1 |
| The Electrical Theory Tree. | 2 |
| Quantisation effects. | 10 |
| Electrical effects in a Vacuum. | 17 |
Viral Infections.
The causal researcher must be astute and wary of scientific zealots negating logic, reason and change. In presenting arguments that reinforce self-acceptance, scientific zealots promote and defend their self-confirming deluded belief-set with twisted arguments and indoctrination techniques. Some emphatically state, as scientific theory cannot be fully proven, then, being unproven and incomplete does not make the theory wrong, especially when empirical tests support the theory empirically. With this logic, they deny all other theory. In the process of preserving the status quo, zealots openly brand alternate theory as dangerous and unsupported nonsense. Although empirical theory predicts experimental results from observational effects without mechanism, when the alternate theory explains those observations allowing prediction, with suitable mechanism producing the same predictive answers, zealots amuse themselves accusing researchers of crankism and crackpotism. In recognising possible truth, respected scientific zealots win credibility through persistent and relentless attacks, taunts, and misquotes, so that the researcher's anger affects credibility so greatly, the zealot succeeds in sidetracking and negating genuine research conclusions.
With the aim to advance the sciences, the causal research refinement process seeks hidden gems that may explain and reinforce, or correct and supersede specific empirical explanations. Anything new that gives humanity a better understanding of Nature's Universe, perhaps removing and explaining a scientific mystery through scientific means, must be seen as a bonus. This process demands causal researchers compare and contrast various theories, even those suggested by cranks, crackpots and scientific heretics; even those which when applied supersede the scientific paradigm. Although refinement may give credibility to a researcher's specific concepts, because humans with human weaknesses do make mistakes (especially researchers holding onto pre-existing beliefs, notions and grudges), the refinement process does not necessarily give credence to that author's entire work, concepts and beliefs (examples; Kepler's Music of the Spheres, and Newton's Alchemy). Scientific history reveals many other examples where during subsequent research, errors in an authority's original work (and cited as suitable reference material) not only affect the conclusions drawn the introduced errors enter the sciences creating havoc. Consequently, researchers must be particularly vigilant when citing reference material where errors occur.
When identified as virally infected tendentious theory, rather than accepting that theory and working around known errors, the scientific method demands treating the theory as if, in a quarantine, with the research focussing on the infection's cause, and while supplanting ignorance with knowledge, in treating the symptoms the researcher must search for other infections that the infected theory produced. As error tracing reveals an error trail, the identification of junction points begins the mapping process, tracing an entire error tree spawned by an invalid notion or noumenon infecting the sciences. Only with this map can the causal researcher suggest the repair, removal, and supersession to more appropriate theory. Electrical theory reveals a prime example of an error tree, where as a matter of respect for Benjamin Franklin's scientific and political achievements, authorities promote his superseded theory. As technological change occurred so rapidly, when finally identified as in-error, rather than fixing the errors, as consensus of opinion nurtured the infection, the scientific community breached the Scientific Method.
Well before the errors, mistakes and necessary corrections became evident, the virulent infections had unfortunately jumped scientific demarcation barriers, appearing in other sciences as working explanations. Because empirical mathematical descriptions concern physical effects, and correctly use those effects to make predictions, as the true electric field description remained a scientific mystery, invalid theory and observational effects spawned more delinquent theory. Although the previous Chapter describes the electric field as a 7-layer failure effect forming a molecular alignment field, the causal researcher must carefully examine the evidence leading to this conclusion, simply because such a theoretical change must produce enormous ramifications throughout the sciences.
Not only did he determine methods to artificially magnetise Iron, he identified the Earth as a giant magnet. As described in other Chapters, the ignorant took Gilbert's word as truth, and through indoctrination, in disregarding ALL current observations falsely maintain, the Earth as having a solid Iron magnetic core. With the technology of the day, Gilbert had no way of knowing that the Earth's moving magmatic magnetic generator produces magnetic reversals, and that the magmatic convective currents producing this magnetic field rotate at a different speed to the Earth's surface. In not realising that electric fields exhibit charge polarities, he describes a surface field effect without longevity that radiates in all directions from the charged surface until the surface loses the effect. He showed the magnetic pole as different, originating from an ambiguous region within the magnetic material, irrespective of the material's size. No matter how many times he cut a magnet, each fragment appeared with two or more independent magnetic poles.
When describing magnetic polarities, many who speak and write about magnetic North and South poles accept an invalid interpretation relating the magnet's North Pole to the Earth's axial North Pole. In being specific, they state that a compass needles' North Pole points to the Earth's North Pole. Because like magnetic poles repel, then the Earth's Geographic North Pole must actually be a South Magnetic Pole. Equally, in defining a North Seeking Pole, many fail to realise that the magnetic North pole under consideration must be a South Pole. To add to the misery of confusion caused by ignorance, respected authors and scientists often illustrate the Earth's lines-of-force pointing in either direction, some in terms of North Seeking Poles, with magnetic lines-of-force radiating away from the geographic North Pole to the South, when others direct the lines radiating from the South Pole to the Earth's geographic North Pole. Incredibly, as many reference books, maps and educational programmes (including those released by NASA) often display the Earth's Magnetic Field with different field directions, one must question the published magnetic directions of other planets described by NASA researchers, by way of North Poles, or by North Seeking South Poles. Equally, when manufacturers label a magnet's North Seeking Pole as the magnet's North Pole, they add to the already confused situation. To correct the situation of by-convention, so that all artificial North Seeking Poles truly exhibit North Pole qualities, then, the Earth's Geographic North Pole must be defined until the Earth's next magnetic reversal, as a magnetic South Pole.
Around 1750 CE, Benjamin Franklin accidentally identified two distinct electric field types. Due to the day's primitive technology, Franklin introduced several notions that became entrenched in mainstream Science as the theoretical foundations. Fifty years before the concept of an atomic model and sixty five years before the identification of polarised light confirmed Huygen's Ęther Theory, Franklin defined a series of classic observational illusions and misconceptions, where terrestrial effects shaped his interpretations and beliefs, giving credit to the electric field as the mechanism causing a force. The short-term effects of like charges repelling and unlike charges attracting seemed almost mysterious, as did the strange effect observed in the space between unlike charged surfaces, where a dipolar electric field appears to form a point-to-point field structure along and around the line joining the closest points of contact.
Unlike the magnetic field emanating from beneath the surface, the dipolar electric field structure emanates from the surface. Franklin further noted that electric and magnetic fields co-exist at the same time in the same space, seemingly without altering the properties of the other. As Franklin had no way of realising the electric and magnetic field's optical polarising effects, he asserted that magnetic and electric fields do not affect light. Despite hard evidence showing electric and magnetic optical polarising effects, scientific programmes and reference texts still use Franklin's deluded assertions as fact.
Without suitable technology or proof, Franklin introduced other notions to explain his observations, such as electrical "current flow" with electricity flowing like a fluid through a conductor. Using the mathematical operands of addition (+) and subtraction (-), he expressed his ideas denoting the electrical charges as positive and negative, with neutral being a balance between positive and negative. Without anyway of determining the electron's true electrical charge potential, he assumed too much in the experimental design stage defining both charge polarity and field direction, where he incorrectly asserted that Positive meant having additional electrons, and that Negative meant having too few electrons. With this definition and without proof he drew far to many important conclusions far too early! Incorrectly he concluded, "positive electrons flow in currents from the positive terminal to the negative terminal," and that the electric field emanating from either a positive or negative charge source travels from the positive to the negative charge. From that moment, awkward problems beset and defied this invalid electrical theory, such as when frictional effects occur as air circulates, with like charges accumulating in charge pools until a discharge condition neutralises the charge differential.
For over a century, Franklin's beliefs, errors, and unproven notions rampantly spread as the very foundations of electrical theory, being the mandatory concepts used to explain all new observations. As these infections crossed demarcation barriers with new electrical observations, the virus mutated into the electrochemical theory defining atomic valency, cations (-) and anions (+). However, with technological evolution came the realisation that Franklin made a tragic mistake; that electrons carry a negative charge, and therefore the more negative, the more electrons; a fact that reversed electrical current flow, from negative to positive! Throughout this entire period, the sciences defined friction with generalisations and observational effects without mechanism. Rather than correcting the sciences, making the necessary changes universally, sycophancy, expedience, cost, and scientific laxity ruled. In perpetuating and maintaining the viral infections within the scientific community as scientific artefacts and the basis for electrical and chemical explanation, superficial corrections and indoctrination spread Franklin's deluded and invalid notions without real change.
Despite Electrical theory and Chemistry working backward, care must be taken with the predictive mathematical descriptions, as educators and reference texts often vary explanations between Franklin's electrical current flow and electron flow without notification. Subsequently, consensus of opinion states that electrons travel from the negative to a positive terminal, while electrical currents flow in the reverse direction. (Please see exercise 1 at this Chapter's end.)
As a young bookbinder, Michael Faraday's interest in both the magnetic and electric fields led him to Sir Humphrey Davy, and a career change working for this noted English Chemist. He learnt a great deal from Davy, and through Faraday's public lectures, his simple down-to-Earth approach inspired many. As Faraday's academic and research stature grew, in 1820 CE, Hans Christian Oersted's serendipitous observations directly connecting electrical current flows to the production of magnetic fields came as a surprise that re-ignited Faraday's passion to explain magnetism. Under Davy, he had only dabbled in both research areas, and as he found so much misinformation he took on the onus to qualify, quantify, and define magnetism and the electric-magnetic link through electrical means. Despite identifying and classifying the then known elements and many chemicals into three magnetic groups, he could not see the link that would upset Davy's electrochemical theory.
Unfortunately, in establishing the conventions needed for explanation, his experimental method and assumptions (explaining various conditions and complex scientific principles in simple terms) reflected the limited scientific knowledge and primitive technology of the day. Although he defined as much as he could, basing much on Franklin's errors establishing the scientific foundations needed for electromagnetic explanation, his most impressive descriptive analysis and research conclusions suffered, for he accepted certain notions without proof that simplified explanation, drawing important conclusions far too early. As his own errors extended Franklin's errors and entered mainstream science, with indoctrination cementing many invalid assumptions, assertions, and speculations into the minds of those who followed, cancerous viral infections confused, complicated and mutated the sciences.
To explain the magnetic field, Faraday treated the magnetic field as having properties similar to the hypothetical Ęther. He noted that as Iron filings sprinkled onto a sheet of paper above a magnet group in lines, he concluded that their number and concentration accurately indicated the magnetic field strength. Although Franklin's view of charge states, "like charges repel", Faraday noted that when like charges flow along parallel electrical conductors, the opposite occurs. Electrons flowing in the same direction draw the conductors together, but when the flow of one conductor reverses, with the electrons flowing in opposite directions the conductors repel and move apart. To explain this effect, Faraday blamed the strange circular magnetic field lines that experiments showed appear to exist around the current carrying wire. When he wound the wire into a coil, and passed a strong current along its length, he noted that each circular magnetic field produced a cumulative directed environmental magnetic field in free-space along the axis of the coil, a field not supported by any ferromagnetic matter. When he inserted the three known ferromagnetic materials into the coil, the field strength increased and the material maintained the magnetic field long-after the electrical current stopped flowing.
In the description of the air-core electromagnet, Faraday failed to describe the presence of the Earth's paramagnetic atmosphere assisting the field's propagation, and more seriously, affecting his other research classifying matter's various magnetic effects. By increasing the electrical current in the coil, as the magnetic field strength increased, he confirmed his previous view that both the concentration and the number of lines indicate the magnet's field strength. In defining these indicator lines as magnetic lines-of-force, inadvertently, he gave them the property of being unique physical entities.
In establishing the conventions, treating each line-of-force as an unbroken physical line with a uniform intensity along its length, flowing from the North Pole to the South Magnetic Pole, he created several knowledge viruses, making each line directly responsible for electrical induction. Because Faraday cited an observational indicator of the field's presence as the actual mechanism, his invalid and wrong physical interpretations led to descriptions and subsequent explanations that released a series of mutating knowledge viruses, infecting all theoretical extensions made by Maxwell, Marconi, Thomson and Babcock. This dispute deals exclusively with Faraday's physical descriptive theory (not the empirical mathematical theory), for in removing all natural explanation these invalid descriptions created scientific mysteries and delinquent sciences.
Just as a weather map's isobars join points of equal atmospheric pressure and do not represent a physical entity, lines-of-force that join points of equal magnetic field strength do not represent a physical entity. As one can use the isobar's apparent closeness to predict an atmospheric pressure cell's relative wind strength and direction, the same must be said about lines-of-force, where as closeness indicates field strength, then accurate predictions become possible from observing this effect. Unfortunately, in simplifying the description, Faraday's view established a preternatural science where deluded theory replaces Nature.
From the invalid concept of the line-of-force being a physical entity, the Babcock dynamo effect actually considers the magnetic line-of-force, as a solid entity that enters the Sun causing sunspots! Furthermore, as lines-of-force also occur across the surface of a pond with water flowing from an inlet pipe to a drainage pipe, the application of Maxwell's equations correctly predicts the forces exerted around this three-dimensional flow structure. Then it must be said that even though both water and air circulation currents reveal these flow lines, the lines do not possess uniform intensity or velocity along their length, unless certain conditions prevail.
Please contemplate the processes responsible for the observable lines-of-force. When placed in a directed external magnetic field, Iron filings develop sympathetic magnetic field structures that align to and link as a chain forming a magnetic N-S-N-S-N-S circuit that connects between the external North and South magnetic pole pieces.
 |
N-SN-S. The illusion becomes apparent, as these directed magnetic gap-fields extend into the surrounding environment producing repulsive effects separating parallel chains forming the illusion of unique lines. Because repulsive conditions and magnetic throughput balance, line concentration and the number of supported magnetic circuits indicates a magnet's cumulative field strength, and therefore, from this observational illusion with physical manifestations, predictions become possible. The same applies to the electric field, where molecular magnetic alignment and motion produce the electric field effect. Rather than emanating from within a body, electrical fields radiate in an environment, as like charges accumulate, from a body's surface, or from a region within a medium.
Electrical charge must be identified as a relative effect, since several forms of charge relativity exist. Although a charge can seemingly appear neutralised with respect to the local environment, many charged situations escape identification because the local environment reaches the same charge potential, at which point, the electric field appears to have been neutralised or the charge dissipated. At this potential, the local environment could be in a fully charged condition and be uniformly discharging into the greater environment. Because surface effects involve molecular activity and motion, the electric field leaches away, distributing the available charge into the surrounding environment.
Due to the mathematical signs used to display both the operands and the charges, with charge relativity effects and then both electron flow and-or electrical current flow complicating description, some students find the work so confusing and complex, they dropout from necessary courses. The problems become evident when charging an object, to add (+) negative electrons (-) to an existing charge, making the existing charge more negative (-), or while removing negative electrons (-) through subtraction making the charge more positive (+). The following truth table clarifies a rather awkward situation that needs interpretation and explanation. Due to charge relativity, three independent situations must be considered, as individual electron charges, charged bodies, and as charged environments.
| Electron Charges. | |||||
| (+) | + | (-) |  | (+) | To add electrons to a positive charge, the positive charge becomes more negative. |
| (+) | + | (-) | | (0) | To add a number of electrons equal to a positive charge, the charge becomes neutral. |
| (0) | + | (-) | | (-) | To add electrons to a neutral body, the body's charge becomes negative. |
| (-) | + | (-) | | (-) | To add electrons to a negative charge, the charge becomes more negative. |
| (-) | - | (-) | | (-) | To remove electrons from a negative charge, the negative charge becomes more positive. |
| (-) | - | (-) | | (0) | To remove a number of electrons equal to a negative charge, the charge becomes neutral. |
| (0) | - | (-) | | (+) | To remove electrons from a neutral body, the body's charge becomes positive. |
| (+) | - | (-) | | (+) | To remove more electrons from a positive charge, the charge becomes more positive. |
| Charged Bodies. | |||||
| (+) | + | (+) | | (+) | To add a positive charge to a positive charge, the cumulative mean charge remains positive. |
| (-) | + | (-) | | (-) | To add a negative charge to a negative charge, the cumulative mean charge remains negative. |
| (-) | + | (+) | | (-,0,+) | To add a negative charge to a positive charge, the cumulative mean charge depends on the greater charge. |
| (-) | + | (0) | | (-) | To add a negative charge to a neutral body, the body's charge becomes negative. |
| (+) | + | (0) | | (+) | To add a positive charge to a neutral body, the body's charge becomes positive. |
| Charged Environments. | |||||
| (E+) | + | (+) | | (E+)(-) | A less positive charge in a stronger positive environment makes the charge negative. |
| (E+) | + | (+) | | (E-)(+) | A stronger positive charge in a weaker positive environment makes the environment negative. |
| (E-) | + | (-) | | (E-)(+) | A less negative charge in a stronger negative environment makes the charge positive. |
| (E-) | + | (-) | | (E+)(-) | A stronger negative charge in a weaker negative environment makes the environment positive. |
| (E+) | + | (0) | | (E+)(-) | A neutral body in a positive environment becomes a negative charge. |
| (E-) | + | (0) | | (E-)(+) | A neutral body in a negative environment becomes a positive charge. |
| (E0) | + | (-) | | (E+)(-) | A negative charge in a neutral environment makes the environment positive. |
| (E0) | + | (+) | | (E-)(+) | A positive charge in a neutral environment makes the environment negative. |
Owing to Franklin's errors, and the sciences accepting from positive to negative directions, some authorities get it wrong with their published reference texts giving the field the opposite direction, incorrectly treating the dipolar electric field as having lines-of-force that travel from the negative charge to the positive charge, (a situation similar to the North Pole and North Seeking pole mix-up). When diagrammatically illustrated as a monopole, with convention putting the problem in the too-hard-box, the scientific community generally maintains that positive charged monopoles radiate lines-of-force into the environment from the surface while the negative charge draws the lines-of-force onto the charged surface.
Although positive and negative electric fields exhibit slightly different properties, a negative charge acts as a positive charge when exposed to a stronger negative charge. The weaker field becomes more positive to a stronger negative charge, or becomes more negative to a strong positive charge. This means that any charge could simultaneously exhibit both positive and negative charges. Example: In the photomultiplier tube exists a series of electrodes, called dynodes, each connected in an increasing positive voltage ladder circuit. Although the electric fields extend through a terrestrially produced vacuum, the nature of charge relativity becomes apparent along the ladder. As the voltage on each ladder rung progressively increases by 90 Volts from the image screen (the negative cold cathode) down the ladder to the signal detection point (the positive anode), in a nine-dynode system the overall difference in charge may be a very dangerous 900 Volts DC. As relative charge differences of only 90 Volts appear between each dynode, a dynode at the ladder's centre exhibits an effective voltage of 450 Volts to both the anode and cathode, as both a positive and negative source, but only as a 90 Volt source to the closer neighbouring dynodes, creating a positive 90 Volt electric field to the more negative 360 Volt dynode, and as a negative 90 Volt electric field to the more positive 540 Volt dynode. Simultaneously each dynode presents a positive charge and a negative charge.
At the expense of the important light sensitive semiconductor image screen where the photoelectric effect occurs, to prove the photon theory many reference text authors spend a great deal of time discussing the photomultiplier's ladder circuitry and the electron cascade effect. Perhaps these authors see the cascade effect as being the more exciting active working component, attributing the observed photoelectric effect and the ladder circuit's amplification to the wrong processes. As illustrated more clearly in other Chapters, despite the various photon theories claiming ownership in giving contradictory photon particle concepts totally different properties and attributes without adequate mechanism, in failing to explain how electrons could possibly leave the cold cathode's under surface, confused and ignorant zealots simultaneously promote a hotch-potch contradictory mulch with the generalised remark, "a photon's impact knocks an electron from the surface." These problems stem from several observational interpretations recorded in scientific history, which appear in the quantisation discussion shortly.
Without adequate proof, common misconceptions and inappropriate ill conceived and expedient it-will-do theory developed. Consequently, despite many conditions proving otherwise, many wrongfully accept as true the invalid assumptions that the electric field must be sub-atomic in origin and that electric fields stem from the sub-atomic components (with theory assuming the electron itself as having a negative charge and the proton as being positive). However, simple observations tell a totally different and powerful story, where the loss or gain of an electron at the atomic level alters the atomic magnetic structure so greatly, the molecular environment responds, and here, like charges attract and unlike charges repel, so a molecular alignment field becomes apparent. Please consider the following points about electric fields:-
As the basic properties of the electric field, taught in school and at University, deny all sub-atomic electric field origins, the terms scientific mystery and by convention, actively replace Nature's truth with a deception. Each point in the above list relates to specific effects and conditions that must be explained fully by the theory. To defend the sub-atomic notion and debunk Nature, scientific zealots ignore the important points, arguing against those points they believe weak, or when similar items seem related, probably voice the following rebuttals;
Such naive arguments attempt to explain away and describe deluded theory and claimed scientific mysteries, with other scientific mysteries and more deluded theory. Although treating water as a scientific mystery, it remains a scientific oddity, being considered as both neutral, and as an electrical insulator in its purest form. Water deserves a great deal of respect, being a thorn in the side of modern science due to its energy, structure and the many forms of water that cannot be explained using conventional theory. Even though water's neutrality occurs halfway between an acid and an alkali, water cannot be considered as a neutral molecule. Water can become a vicious acid, an intense alkali, a powerful corrosive agent, dangerous explosive, a deadly poison, vicious cutting material, an erosive chemical, cleaning agent, means of transport, lubricant, a powerful adversary, food, enemy, or a good friend. Water's attributes require special treatment in other Chapters.
As for water's electrical conductivity, pure water acts as an impressive electrical insulator that becomes electrically conductive and extremely corrosive when the presence of an impurity alters its crystal structure. The zealot's concept that electric fields only develop in, on, or around, an insulator seems to be an urban myth, since any metal conductor can hold a powerful electric charge, and therefore be an electric field's source. As humanity made scientific rules, Nature broke them to reveal something far more exciting; matter's magnetic interaction to matter through magnetic means. When exposed to a sudden high voltages, water's crystal structure alters to the conductors supplying the electrical current flow, producing magnetic alignment changes, followed by chemical disassociation, and in the Hydrogen-Oxygen environment any spark initiates a recycling explosion releasing tremendous energy, as water breaks apart, combines, then breaks up again and recombines until the electrical current ceases, and the electrodes corrode.
Due to a classic observational illusion, terrestrial electric field observations reveal several physical environmental wind-flow effects that only during the moments an electric field establishes, but then when the charge and environment stabilise to the changed conditions, the cumulative wind effects seemingly give way to an apparently unchanging radiating influence field despite certain strange effects occurring in the environmentally aligned and seemingly stressed conditions, such as human body hair standing up, and as environmental molecules buffet the skin with considerable force, accelerated evaporation cools the skin. Although many authorities categorically deny major environmental wind effects, molecular observations led to technological change revealing the electric field's powerful motion and activity.
In negative ion generators and commercial electric field air purification and cleaning systems, without any moving parts pumping the air through the device, the electric field not only circulates the air at a tremendous rate producing a circulation effect, it extracts smoke and other pollutants from the air. Equally, when applied with a high electrical charge, a simple bare metal strip mounted in the correct ground hugging housing produces a wind capable of extinguishing extremely dangerous oil layer fires. In the electric wind fire stopper, the wind strength and velocity can be further increased by several radio valve tricks, creating a triode with a biased narrow open wire mesh grill mounted parallel to a negatively charged heated bare metal strip. The term bias describes the mesh carrying a not so great charge of the same polarity. Despite the belief that like charges repel, applying a negative charge to this mesh actually attracts and accelerates the negatively charged aligned molecular wind passing through the mesh. For this to work, the housing must have sufficiently sized breather holes returning atmospheric molecules to the heated Cathode.
In the days of radio valve technology, when young technicians had to accept the notion that like charges repel, when it came to discussing radio valves, they had to accept the opposite, because electrical relativity and molecular flows fail the general theory. Although radio valve technology demands breathers and suitable volume for molecular flows, the reasons for this failure being chalked up to scientific mysteries and pure electron beam effects. In the radio valve, with a heated cathode reducing the energy needs to maintain the electric field flow, low voltages (from 95 to 1,000 V DC) accelerate molecules carrying electrons across a terrestrially produced vacuum to the positive anode. As more fully explained in another section on thermionic electrical valves, all vacuum tube radio valves initially depend on contact conduction at the negatively charged cathode and then molecular motion across a physical gap for their operation. Many observational illusions occur that generated contradictory theory, and the false belief that only electron beams breach the valve's gap, passing in one direction from cathode to anode.
Unheated cold cathode devices like the electric fire stopper and photomultiplier tube require much higher voltages to produce this contact conduction effect, where the concentration of altered magnetic molecules adhere more strongly to the cathode, than around the thermionic valve's thermally excited cathode. As the cold cathode, the photomultiplier's semiconductor image screen responds to increases in local molecular activity caused by incident light allowing gas migration effects to move hitch-hiking electrons from the surface to the first dynode, at which point the dynodes promote a cascade amplification effect. As increased surface activity affects the vacuum's gas molecules (increasing each free molecule's activity and space requirements), the gas viscosity decrease promotes an energy distribution circulation effect that assists in directing and accelerating molecules across the gap to one or more anodes.
The electric field's many effects, such as the Doff effect, can be best-described using aerodynamic principles and the Bernoulli effect. Molecular wind-flows blow across and around objects placed in the molecular electric field. In the terrestrial environment, aerodynamic flows and magnetic-linking of atmospheric molecules produce the illusions of like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Environmental motion of molecules around the charge, gives the appearance that a monopolar field radiates, from, or to, the charged object in all directions. The electric monopolar field stands as a molecular field of discovery. As molecular alignment and convection cells distribute the charge into the environment, the illusion produced gives one the impression that the field seeks-out conductors and opposite charges. The electric wind not only transfers the charge to other materials, the aerodynamics in the molecular winds can move, pick-up and carry heavy items, thus explaining the Doff effect, and the pieces of confetti being thrown several metres.
In "De Magnet", Gilbert describes a simple balanced non-magnetic metal needle which when suspended in an electric field points in the direction towards the electric monopole. Although some may relate Gilbert's needle to charge relativity, several other conditions apply that produce charge relativity. In the field, because non-metal non-conductive needles also turn toward the monopole passing molecular winds play the greater role in both turning the needle and in producing the charge distribution effect along the needle's length. As the highly conductive needle simultaneously becomes positively and negatively charged with molecular alignment, an electrical current flows as the needle's conductivity creates an electrical circuit that breaches the environment's high resistance, increasing the discharging rate. As molecular flows and alignment produce differential frictional effects and charge distribution, environmental energy distribution effects with matter responding to the changed environmental energy give rise to aerodynamic effects producing a force that rotates the needle to the prevailing wind direction.
When Franklin observed the dipolar electric field, he found that Gilbert's needles align along the dipolar electric field's lines-of-force direction. But like the line-of-force illusion, each needle establishes its own environmental alignment field that extends into the surrounding environment, with gap fields producing differential forces. The line-of-force illusion becomes apparent when a sprinkling of seeds floating on an oil's surface and exposed to various electric fields, flow into the field shape. With friction and alignment effects producing positive and negative charge distributions along each seed's surface and as environmental throughput maintains the repulsive force between the apparent lines, the closeness and number of lines becomes indicative of the field strength with molecular wind buffers between the charged seeds forcing parallel seed chains apart. The aerodynamics of the moving charged environment about each seed produces repulsive wind effects between neighbouring seeds that collectively align the seeds along the lines of least resistance where internally, each seed evenly distributes the maximum environmental throughput. Thus, two reasons explain why objects point towards the charge-point.
Conductivity across the field's potential difference establishes an alignment short-cut for the field to distribute the charge as an electron flow through the conductor, discharging the field at a greater rate. At the strongest point of charge (the closest point to the field), the conductor takes on the attributes of an oppositely charged source, while the most distant point acts as a source to continue the original field direction, with environmental molecules aligning to that charge, creating surface effects and contact conductivity, migrating electrons carried by molecules to the next relative charge point. The flowing charge gives rise to a weak magnetic field as spiralling molecular flows develop between the conductor and the charge source. Plotting a balanced needle's direction in the electric field adds to the illusion of lines-of-force. Molecular streamer flows create the illusion of a field that seems to radiate uniformly in all directions. The force at a given radius from a charged monopole abides by the inverse square law, due to charge distribution effects and migration effects within the environment, until the field becomes stressed by a conductor's shape and presence.
If at the most distant location from the charge point on an electrical conductor, momentarily earthing negates that charge, forcing the conductor to exhibit the remaining electrical polarity. If removed from the field, this charged plate forms a monopole that produces environmental molecular activity around it, and as a discovery field connects as a dipolar field with the surrounding objects through charge relativity distributing the charge. In this terrestrial situation, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle comes into its own, as the mere attempt to measure an electric field's molecular activity, changes the field activity, altering calibration and measurement parameters. Therefore, as all measurements alter the system's molecular properties, all measurements of the electric field become relative illusions, whose strength depends on the surrounding environment.
The procedure of earthing the conductor in an electric field, to create an opposite charge, forms the basic principle behind the operation of the Gold-leaf electroscope. Exposing the electroscope's test plate to an electric field promotes a non-reading charge, until earthing produces a re-distribution effect throughout the electrical conductor, from the test plate to the electrode's hanging folded gold leaf foil. To momentarily earth the exposed test plate, atmospheric molecular movement across the air gap between the folded foil arms, force the arms to open like a jaw, as does the base of the Greek letter l. The greater the opening angle, the greater the relative field strength. This primitive analogue device must be considered as having a low order of accuracy due to environmental effects and calibration errors. Atmospheric charge leaching, humidity and relative charge effects make the Gold-leaf electroscope virtually impossible to calibrate.
---updated to here----->31%
As electrons are forced along a metal conductor, the addition of a single electron to the metal atom alters the magnetic state promoting a local environmental magnetic molecular response. Neutral molecules will be affected by the altered magnetic state, to be attracted and aligned. The greater the charge, the greater the alignment, the greater the attraction. As the atmosphere is crystalline in structure, any magnetic change to the metal atoms in the charge-ball will alter the metal-air interface. The effect will affect and extend into the surrounding atmospheric environment as a bucket-brigade of alignments, but only if the environment permits such change. The greater the surface charge, the greater the molecular pressure at the surface interface. This change in the alignment will affect molecules in the conductor. As more metal atoms are magnetically altered, the molecular pressure about the charge-ball increases, further altering the surface interface alignment of matter in contact with the charge-ball. Metal atoms may be attacked and transported across the dipolar molecular field. The Ice Experiment identifies that at low electrical potentials, electrolysis occurs in the dry air solution.
A negatively charged electroscope is discharged by alpha-particle radiation. Rutherford identified the alpha-particle as a large positively charged particle. He showed that alpha-particles can be captured and collected inside an evacuated glass beaker. Helium is found in the beaker when the alpha-particle's double positive charge is neutralised. Correctly, Rutherford concluded that the alpha-particle with a mass of 4 amu is a Helium atom stripped of its two electrons. With this observation, Rutherford and others began looking for the atom's missing neutral mass, as atomic number increase at a constant rate, the atomic mass increases disproportionally due to the presence of hidden neutral particles. Nuclear decay through atomic fission reactions led Bohr and Chadwick to determine the alpha-particle's composition as two protons and two neutrons. A slow velocity alpha-particle is ejected during radio-active decay, as two high speed Beta-particles (electrons) are ejected.
When Rutherford proposed his atomic model, he used a Gold-leaf electroscope to measure the strength of the alpha-particle radiation passing through the metal foil. Rutherford's lack on knowledge about matter and the primitive technology of the time, caused him to wrongfully conclude the atom as being 99.9999% empty space. Many years later, the differences between metallic bonds and normal chemical bonds were identified. Unfortunately, Science turned a blind-eye to the fact that the electron cloud atomic models are wrong.
When a neutral electrical conductor is introduced into an existing dipolar electric field, the bizarre influence of the field is noted. The conductor becomes negatively charged through the Edison effect. Soon after this effect was first noted, it was realised that the electrical current flowing in the electric field could be controlled. In the radio valve, one or more conductive wire fences (grids) are positioned across the field. A small charge applied to the grid produces a large change in electrical current flowing in the molecular field. As these effects can be achieved and measured in normal atmospheric conditions, an electron-hitchhiking molecular field is identified.
Electric fields exhibit another form of charge relativity. Several phases in the development of the electric field will be observed as the apparent charge increases. This relativity is due to different mechanisms as different energy-forms come into play, at different voltages, activity levels and pressures. At low voltages, the molecular field is nebulous. With a temperature or charge increase, the field illusion seemingly develops the point-to-point flow between the closest points of contact. This is purely an illusion. From these closest charged points, called the stress or break-out points, with higher voltage, the spark will form and jump across a gap, appearing disjointed or jagged, perhaps forked. The spark does not need to travel along a direct path until the voltage is increased to a point where the spark will be seen to follow an absolute point-to-point path. Conventional theory maintains the belief that a dipolar electric field always exists as a point-to-point field. It will be shown that a point-to-point field is only established when certain conditions occur. The convective wind cells establish a funnelling streamer flow structure across the gap.
Reference texts often state 'a cloth will wipe electrons from the surface of an electrical insulator (ebony, plastic and glass) to produce a static charge.' Just as it takes a great deal to return the electron to the affected atoms of an electrical insulator, it takes a powerful magnetic jolt to dislodge an electron from the elprons of the insulator's atoms. The vigorous rubbing of a surface with a cloth produces a proximity event involving very high frequency intense magnetic shocks. Just as this buffeting can dislodge entire atoms, it can also dislodge the electron from an elpron, to be thrown from an elpron's surface onto the other surface. As to which way the electron jumps is dependent on the molecular strength of the insulator used to charge the rod. After rubbing, a glass rod can later be found to exhibit either positive or negative charges depending on the material used to charge the rod. When an insulator carries the charge, magnetic attraction at the atomic level initially causes air molecules to align and be attracted to the insulator's charged surface, stressing the atmosphere.
Cannon fire and large firework displays produce a great deal of noise, often heard downwind at distances thirty kilometres from the source. However, the atmosphere before a violent and extremely loud electrical storm is quiet, still and heavy. Although no winds are felt, a great deal of molecular motion can be detected that restrains sound propagation. The intensity of sound produced by an Earth shaking lightning clap may be ten thousand times louder than that of a cannon, yet its propagation is limited to about ten to fifteen kilometres. As will be illustrated, vertical wind funnels increase the sound propagation resistance as different rates of dispersion restrict audio refractions and transmission. If, during a lightning storm, one's body hair stands up, exercise extreme caution for this only occurs moments before lightning strikes.
As air is forced through the nozzle of a vacuum cleaner, or a jet of steam is expelled into the atmosphere through a wooden or insulated metal pipe, the friction of moving molecules develops an electric charge on the nozzle. Noteworthy is the fact that when using a wooden or metal nozzle, a positive charge develops on the nozzle, however when a small quantity of oily matter is introduced into the steam, the charge becomes negative. It was believed that the greater the elastic force of the steam, the greater the voltage produced. The greater the molecular agitation or frictional forces, the greater the charge. Evaporation does not produce a charge, however, when rain falls on a plant, the leaves develop a positive charge however, the plant's internals and roots develop a negative charge. As water vapour is removed from the air by an air-conditioning system, motion in the dry air will often promote the development of very intense static pools in that environment. This effect is painfully enhanced by artificial carpets and insulated footwear.
In the atmosphere, the motion of convergent convective cells produce high frequency proximity events in each flow, where differing moisture contents and molecular alignment may promote molecular vibration and a massive charge build-up at different locations. Molecules held in the air's moving crystalline matrix, shaken so violently can fling electrons from one structure into the oppositely moving convective cell. In attaching itself to another molecule, the electron changes the magnetic structure of both cells to initiate mechanisms that load each directional flow's crystalline structure. As more electrons are blown-off, the molecules align to the altered magnetic conditions, causing far more electrons to be blown-off. The head of the vertical cells rapidly develop a different charge to that at the base and to any Eddy cell that exist between the convective cells because like charges attract.
In much the same way, the Van de Graaff generator rapidly develops an extremely high static charge. From the base of the generator, an electrical circuit forcibly adds electrons to, or removes electrons from, a high speed endless insulated belt (typically made of silk, nylon or rubber). This is analogous to the direction of the moving air's convective cell's crystal matrix. The charge carrying belt travels into the centre of an insulated metal charge-ball, where the charge is seemingly deposited before the belt returns to the base. As like charges gather together, this generator mechanically rectifies and pumps electrons to, or from, the charge-ball, as does the atmosphere's moving convective cells.
The Van de Graaff generator produces what some consider as a stand-alone positive or negative monopolar electric field. As the field seemingly radiates in all directions into the surrounding environment, it illustrates several short lived environmental illusions. According to conventional electrical theory, electrons applied as a negative charge to an isolated metal charge-ball, flow evenly over and saturate the charge-ball's outer surface. Once the field is established, the negative charge is leached by the environment until the charge is redistributed. In reality, the opposite terminal is the local environment, because the circuit used to add or remove electrons, pumps electrons from or to, the local environment' ground state. The charge will leach until a point of charge equilibrium is reached.
Conventional theory similarly states that a positive charge spreads itself over the charge-ball's surface to form a stand-alone monopolar electric field. The positive charge does not involve a physical particle that would flow over the surface. The positive charge similarly leaches away as free-electrons in the atmosphere neutralise the charge. Such a simplistic overview is without basis in Nature. As air is an insulator, where do the free electrons originate? The mechanisms that allow electrons to flow to, or from the surface, must be examined process by process.
The Ice experiment identifies a weak nebulous electric field activity in a frozen dry atmosphere where microscopic charges promote molecular movement and corrosion. This compares with the reasonably large charges used to pick-up confetti and fluff by a charged rod. The confetti demonstration is more dramatic around an operating Van De Graaff generator. The intense molecular field attracts a pile of confetti on mass as individual pieces. Some confetti that contacts the charge-ball immediately flies-off, while other pieces adhere for a considerable period before being blown-off with the same considerable force. The strong electric potential can seemingly do the impossible, throwing the confetti from five to ten metres. As this selective blowing-off is blamed on the differences between individual pieces of confetti, the principles behind this fascinating effect are ignored. At higher charge potentials, a spark will jump through the atmosphere, and at even higher potentials a rotating coronal display develops on the charge-ball. Although confetti is attracted to the charge-ball, the same does not seem to apply to the air molecules. This story identifies an illusion of several parts. The first part of the illusion is where air molecules seem to stress and align to the direction of the field. Smoke is typically used to display air movements, however in an electric field smoke appears to vanish as it is either rapidly blown-away, or attracted to the charge-ball. This is noted with the negative ion generator.
Although the air is a reasonable insulator, when neutral molecules gain or lose electrons they alter their magnetic structure. After being attracted to the charge point, they adhere in a swirling mass before travelling away in convectional flows. Neutral molecules replace the magnetically altered molecules. Flows of molecules travel each way to and from the charge-ball. Continuously, the charge is being leached and transported by the environmental convective flows. These molecular winds are best illustrated in other devices.
| distance | actual force | quantised force | ||
| 1x | = | 3 | = | 3 |
| 2x | = | 2.8 | = | 2 |
| 3x | = | 2.5 | = | 2 |
| 4x | = | 2.1 | = | 2 |
| 5x | = | 1.6 | = | 1 |
| 6x | = | 1.0 | = | 1 |
| 7x | = | 0.3 | = | 0 |
| at that point | total | quantised | half | quantised | So, | quantised | Actual | |||||||
| (1.5 + 1.4 ) | | 2.9 | | 2 | | 1 | | 1 | 2 + 1 | | 3 | 2.9 + 1.45 | = | 4.35 |
| (1.5 + 1.4 + 1.25) | | 4.15 | | 4 | | 2 | | 2 | 4 + 2 | | 6 | 4.15 + 2.075 | = | 6.225 |
| (1.5 + 1.4 + 1.25 + 1.05) | | 5.2 | | 5 | | 2.5 | | 2 | 5 + 2 | | 7 | 5.2 + 2.6 | = | 7.8 |
Unfortunately, quantised measurements of non-quantised scales often produce such distortions and unexpected errors. The photon illusion stands as a typical example where a one electron potential difference sets the lowest resolution or finest measurement graduation in the electronic measuring package. This graduation creates the illusion of quantised light particles. Depending on the surface reactivity to receive and respond to approaching optical signals-of-change, photomultipliers manufacturers incorrectly rate these devices sensitivities as low as one photon, despite the fact that the photomultiplier loses sensitivity with age, phosphor-burns, incorrect voltages, and use. The telescope's active optical surface area (or its light gathering power) also limits measurement sensitivity.
When Galileo first examined the night sky with the telescope, he observed more stars than he could see with the naked eye. As his observations changed and extended the visible Universe to a greater limit, he inadvertently created enormous social, cultural and religious problems. When comparing the eye to a small 6 inch diameter telescope (with its 28 square inch capture area), and a 200 inch telescope (with a capture area of 314,159 square inches), totally different physical sizes exist simultaneously for the visible Universe. The technological resolution limits vary so greatly between the human eye and these two instruments, that an unseen star becomes barely visible in the 6-inch telescope with magnitude of 13.56, and relatively bright in the larger instrument.
Owing to the photomultiplier's output signal being dependent on electron potentials, quantised photometric measurement of one photon graduation per second made with the small instrument must not be considered as an accurate indication of the star's true brightness. A one photon graduation gap in the smaller instrument's measurement represents a gap of between 1,122 to 2,243 photon graduations per second when the larger instrument measures the same star. If actually measured on this large instrument at precisely 2,000 photon graduations per second, then the six inch telescope should observe 1.636661211 photon graduations per second. Obviously, the quantisation error produced by the quantised graduation scale removes the problem from the source. Therefore, when the scientific community use electronic measurement and accept that the results as proving quantised force and energy as a function of the source, Science made a fatal mistake that removes all credibility. Blind acceptance of quantum states must be seen as scientific suicide.
Logically, when an atomic structure gains or loses an electron, then, a quantised mass change of 0.00054 amu must occur. Although negative and positive monopoles produce different electric field effects, the explanation comes with an understanding of the altered atomic or molecular magnetic field producing responses that alter alignment, position, motion, or some other trigonometrically related attribute or environmental response. Matter's 3-dimensional geometry always produces a diverse range of non-quantised effects, reactions and illusions attributed to changes in the electric and magnetic components. degrees produces a non-quantised vector In the next section, it becomes apparent that energy, force and position cannot be quantised!
Before exploring radio valve effects, several popular misconceptions about the vacuum must be corrected. Many wrongfully believe that a vacuum is produced when all atmospheric gaseous matter is removed leaving an empty volume. On the Earth, several tricks must be used to form a vacuum. When a piston is pulled out of a sealed cylinder, a partial vacuum forms. The Mercury in a filled metre long tube, when inverted, acts like a piston in a cylinder, flowing as a mass, forming a partial vacuum in the tube's sealed top. If the Mercury flows into a bowl in such a way that air is prevented from entering the tube, a point of balance occurs between atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the Mercury column. Normal atmospheric pressure supports a vertical column of Mercury, about 760 mm in height. The lower the pressure, the smaller the Mercury column it supports. When the column is tilted, although the weight of the Mercury in the column increases, the vertical height of the column (measured from the liquid's surface to the meniscus) remains the same. Since this effect proves that the equilibrium is related to pressure not weight, it has become the standard for measuring atmospheric pressure. Irrespective of the purity of Mercury, the vacuum formed contains Mercury vapour and atmospheric gases including Helium.
As the pressure is reduced, the voltages needed to produce specific effects are progressively lowered. Since pistons leak, two or more pumps are often connected in series to deepen the vacuum. Progressively, it becomes more difficult to increase the vacuum, so tricks are used to improve the pump's deep vacuum pressure plateaux. before removing any gas, air molecules can be displaced by flushing and wetting the vacuum chamber's surfaces with another gas. After reaching the pump's pressure plateaux,, the first trick is to seal the chamber from the pump. A Magnesium wire getter is burnt, forcing chemical reactions in the vacuum chamber to form solid precipitates. The flame draws Oxygen, Nitrogen, oil and Mercury vapour from the vacuum chamber's wet surfaces to produce solid precipitates. The definition of a high vacuum is less than a micron (10-3 mm) of Mercury. Once the deepest possible vacuum is obtained, an oil diffusion pump dissolves the remaining surface gasses. Astronomers use extremely deep vacuum pressures (between 10-5 and 10-8 mm) to coat metals and other chemicals on optical surfaces. Even at these low pressures, there is a great deal of free matter remaining in the vacuum. In the region of the Earth, in the vacuum of the Solar System, the Solar wind circulates and deposits matter.
At low voltages, the electrical resistance of the vacuum is impressive, however, in the right conditions, matter's alignment permits the vacuum to conduct voltages. Conductivity, ionisation, fluorescence, phosphorescence, luminescence and incandescence must not be confused. Ionisation does not need to produce conductivity, and then conductivity does not always produce ionisation. Ionisation does not need to produce an observable event. Ionisation occurs when the atom or molecule gains or loses an electron. This changes the magnetic structure of molecules and atoms. Different mechanisms are responsible. Conductivity is a property of matter allowing electrons to be transported through a medium as matter gains then loses excess electrons. The medium presents several different levels of electrical resistance, depending on the magnitude of the electron flow. Although pure water is an impressive insulator at low voltages, at extreme voltages it becomes a violent explosive. This is not a statement of ionisation increasing conductivity. Several powerful mechanisms are responsible for the different forms of conductivity, resistance and the complex chemical reactions taking place about the spark.
Luminescence is any event that liberates light. There are different forms of luminescence. Matter can be forced to reach a luminescent state through impact, friction, radiation, heating, chemical, electrical and magnetic activity. Luminescence occurs at any temperature and may be attributed to a biological source
Incandescence is a property of dark matter's activity in the Universe. A material's standing state thermal activity liberates magnetic radiation across a non-resonant broad band of frequencies. Incandescence is partly responsible for the colour of an object. Incandescence materials have a characteristic thermal spectral peak related to the temperature or activity of matter. Black-body radiation is dependent on the chemical and atomic construction of the affected matter. As an object's temperature is increased its colour changes as the altered thermal peak travels from the red to the more active blue end of the optical spectrum. Although matter is continually signalling its presence at precise frequencies, an accumulation of matter produces a cacophony of random frequencies without definable spectral lines. Incandescent radiation effects are observed in the Edison filament lamp, in charging a chemical battery and the strip heater. A hot filament can excite the molecules of a rarefied gas to a point that will trigger phosphorescence.
A Phosphorescent event involves a solid or liquid phosphor that liberates light for a period of time after an event. The material can be excited by X-rays, ultraviolet, light, friction, particle radiation or electrical activity. As a typical phosphor, Zinc sulphide will continue to glow in the dark for a period of time. Different trace impurities alter the duration and colour of the phosphor.
Fluorescence is a reinforced resonance effect, where individual atomic magnetic fields respond liberating specific sideband frequencies, unique spectral lines indicative of the gas molecules and atoms present. Certain conditions must be met before a reinforced resonance occurs. Matter must be aligned by pressure, motion, chemical reaction or through a crystal lattice. Atomic and molecular impact events, mechanical stress, high temperature chemical reactions, relative motion, and magnetic stimulation all produce resonant effects. The magnetic fields of affected atoms or molecule resonate for a period of time, magnetically transmitting a signal into the environment. A transmitter's aerial becomes resonant in the radio spectrum when certain conditions are met.
To promote fluorescence in a discharge tube, a voltage of 10,000 to 20,000 Volts DC is required to align and vibrate the molecular crystal lattice. The effect is enhanced by molecules gaining or losing electrons, pulsating the magnetic field at frequencies unique to the molecules in the vacuum. However, the same evacuated chamber can be stimulated into fluorescence at much lower voltages by rapidly switching the voltage. The alignment of the gas crystal structure switches so rapidly, the atoms and molecules reverberate and liberate magnetic radiation in the microwave, Infrared, Light, or Ultraviolet regions of the spectrum. In an event wrongfully described as a coronal discharge, normal air in contact with a high power radio transmitter's aerial will fluoresce. Resonance can also be achieved in a radio valve through molecular impact velocities, frequency around the cylindrical anode's breather holes.
Some gasses are stimulated by a 50 Hz 110 Volt signal, such as the household fluorescent lamp. This hybrid phosphorescent-fluorescent tube uses a fluorescing gas to excite a phosphor coating. The illumination of a fluorescent lamp may be changed by altering the frequency and applied voltage. At low frequencies, the rarefied gas may give off a dull light, while at higher radio frequencies, the gas glows brilliantly.
The illusion of quantum energy states can be explored with portable battery operated fluorescent lamps. It will be noted that the brightness seems to increase in precise steps as more electrons are seemingly liberated by the gas. This is in part due to the portable lamp's poor electrical circuit design. Quantum steps demand increasing the voltage by a precise figure to remove more electrons from the atom in the rarefied gas. In this situation, as the fluorescent tube is connected as part of he oscillator circuit, the tube's characteristics alter the oscillator's radio frequency signal. The radio oscillator's frequency increases at a constant rate due to the tube's decreasing molecular viscosity. The radio signal can be detected with an AM radio receiver, or a frequency counter. As the gas warms, the resistance decrease produces a steady increase in the radio frequency which alters the overtones and harmonics in both the radio oscillator and the luminosity of the lamp. The apparent stepped illumination output occurs as new overtones are produced at different frequencies.
As the radio frequency increases greater atomic shocks eject electrons from some molecules. This ionisation reduces the resistance of the vacuum in promoting a more rigid crystal flipping structure. The electrical resistance of the gas marginally drops as each illumination change occurs. New harmonics and overtones allow the electronics to work more effectively and efficiently. The evidence does not support quantised steps or packets of energy as demanded by Quantum Mechanics. The electronics package responds to a slow change in the molecular and atomic activity, producing what appears to be apparent quantised events throughout the gas. Although the electrodes are not heated, they are physically vaporised by resonant molecular shocks. A form of electrolysis rips metal atoms from the surface depositing them on the phosphor as a dark coating.
As high voltages are applied to an evacuated discharge tube, the altered magnetic states will upset the mechanical magnetic stability of the atom and it molecules. This does not mean that magnetic radiation will be liberated. At the moment a small charge is applied to an electrode, molecules in wet-contact with the electrode's surface, are attracted to the surface where they gain or lose electrons depending on the applied charge at the electrode. Molecular pressure around the electrode forces magnetically altered molecules to be ejected from the molecular matter cloud. As the pressure and activity increase, the atoms may re-sort, break and form magnetic chemical bonds, re-structure, change molecular alignment, alter the magnetic field shape, and transport the charge. If the energy-form is strong enough, or the frequency of change great enough, fluorescence occurs as the magnetic fields reverberate and resonate passing magnetic vibrations to, and through, surrounding matter.
Nuclear decay, chemical bonding, impacts and structural changes are some events that initiate specific resonance responses. When such an event occurs in matter, each affected atom and its magnetic field reverberate like a precisely tuned bell. In stimulating any object into resonance, the fundamental tone, overtones and harmonics are produced. The nature and magnitude of the energy-forms stimulate a modulation of the harmonics and distortions in one or more frequency bands. As an action occurs in one time frame and the reaction in a subsequent time frame, the resonance event occurs throughout the subsequent time frame. The reaction consists of the initial transient (the attack), sustain (the production of the harmonics) and the decay (fade-out). When graphed, this reaction forms an amplitude envelope. All resonance events have an envelope shape. The mass, structure, physical dimensions, chemical bonds, energy transfer rate, magnetic field generator and loading, all contribute to the resonance of the molecule or atom.
In larger gas molecules, as it takes time for any change to be transferred through the atom, different tones, transients, harmonics and over tones, identify different isotopes and molecules. The isotopes of the elements in the Periodic Table could be imagined as some four hundred different bells, from the tiny fairy bell (the Hydrogen molecule) to the giant bell of Big Ben (Lawrencium). Each will have a characteristic ring when struck normally. When struck differently or damped by chemical bonding, the ring may become a clunk. Due to the structure and size of each atom, magnetic bonding, pressure and throughput, (as with a tuning fork) the resonance can be tuned or changed by loading. Loading establishes a criterion for resonance. Anything that changes the mechanical loading in the atom will change the atom's resonance. In the three-clock relativity experiment, as the atomic clocks flew around the Earth, relative rotational effects loaded each atomic clock differently.
As an analogy, many different energy-forms can excite a guitar string into resonance. The fret board allows one to alter the resonance by changing the effective length and stress in the string. Suppose the resonant string produces a fundamental harmonic of 440 Hz. It has natural harmonics of 880, 1760, 3520, 7040, and 14080 Hz in the audio spectrum, and in the ultrasonic range, 28169 and 56320 Hz. The vibrating string also has sub-harmonics of 220, 110, 55 Hz, and infra-sounds of 27.5 and 13.75 Hz. The string may be picked, plucked, strummed, bowed, scraped, pulled, muffled, muted, stretched, vibrated, shocked, struck, wacked, and broken. All of these applied energy-forms will cause the string to resonate. Although the same basic audio spectra appear, other resonances in the string and guitar body add to the effect, introducing modulation and overtone distortions with distinctive harmonic amplitude distributions. The dynamic effect of the instrument creates a characteristic spectrum (called the timbre) where the fundamental note and harmonics are modulated with the instrument's sideband information. The 440 Hz guitar note is quite different to the same note produced by a bass viola, due to differences in the resonant chamber's shape and the mechanisms promoting different pumping and amplification mechanisms propagating the sound. Spurious resonances produce their own harmonic spectra that modulate and beat with the fundamental note and its harmonics. In the hands of a novice, the 440 Hz carrier frequency may be produced with other parasitic-fundamentals that dramatically change the timbre into a discordant sound where the sideband modulation distorts a note into a screech.
To a profoundly and selectively deaf human ear, where the person can only hear the frequency band from 800 to 1200 Hz, it would be extremely difficult to reconcile the sounds heard as this band carries single sideband harmonic frequencies. The 440 Hz note may sound wonderful to the normal ear, however, to the profoundly deaf person, cross modulation and beating of the perceived frequencies, of the sideband series, 880, 900, 912, 920, 926 and 930 Hz are heard as an irritating muffled discord. Many who need a hearing aid complain about low level sounds booming, cutting through conversations, and as a means to overcome this booming effect increase an amplifier's volume to levels that hurt and injure normal hearing.
Narrow band research presents massive problems for the researcher. To a colour blind person with Red Achromasia, the image of a rainbow against a Blue sky appears in perfect focus but is perceived as a fine bright arc over a dark sky. Everything appears as shades of Red because Orange, Green, Blue and Violet are perceived as Black. The visual light spectrum is a very narrow band in the magnetic spectrum, yet is considered as different to all other magnetic radiation. When molecular Hydrogen (H2) is chemically burnt in a blow torch flame, the spectra is the same as that produced when the gas reaches fluorescence in a discharge tube, providing the flame is hot enough. In viewing the optical spectrum as a selective band, classical physics will not reconcile the Hydrogen molecule's spectrum because Hydrogen has just one electron.
To view the entire magnetic spectrum, molecular Hydrogen's sharp spectral groups appear and can be reconciled harmonically. Across the magnetic spectrum, various regions carry the harmonics of Hydrogen from the standing state 21.1061 cm Hydrogen line (1.420406422 GHz), well into the X-ray region. In each harmonic region, the individual series of overtone and sideband frequencies seems to bear little or no harmonic relationship, though there is an apparent sideband relationship as the lines in each series grow closer together. Across the magnetic spectrum, these spectral groups are known by their series name, the Pfund, Brackett, Paschen, Balmer and Lyman series.
Rather than looking at the big picture of resonance across the entire magnetic spectrum, in 1913, Niels Bohr attempted to resolve the Balmer series in the optical spectrum using empirical tricks and best fit mathematics. The first nine major lines of the Balmer series presented science with a mystery because the wavelengths do not bear the obvious harmonic relationship found with most resonant objects (ie. 4x, 2x, x, 0.5x, 0.25x, 0.125x, etc.) The Balmer series wavelengths are given as;
6562.79, 4861.33, 4340.47, 4101.74, 3970.07,
3889.05, 3835.39, 3797.9, and 3770.63 (Angstroms )
(1 Angstrom = 10-10 metres)).
This mathematically related sideband structure should be considered as a chromatic scale.
In 1913, there was no knowledge of microwaves, single side band transmissions, frequency modulation, nor was there any knowledge of radio astronomy, and very little known of frequencies above ultra-violet or below infrared. It is accepted as fact that 'all the theories in Physics have limitation that breakdown and that these theories become less accurate as the speed is made to approach the speed of light'. Without any rules to guide him, without following the scientific method, Bohr suggested a radical hypothesis. He quantised mass, energy and the orbital parameters, including the speed of the electron in orbit, at a quantised orbital height, that excited Rutherford and would be accepted in giving credence to an unnatural atomic model. Through direct reasoning Bohr derived a mathematical short-cut to describe what seemed to be Hydrogen spectral lines. His solution is a ruthless empirical short-cut or mathematical trick that appears to work. He did so without involving any natural mechanism or contemplating Hydrogen's molecular and crystalline state. Bohr deduced, the larger his quantum number, the larger the atom and the slower the orbital frequency, thereby increasing the period of time for the atom to transit from one state to the next. Quantum theory needed to explain light in quantum steps, so from this deluded notion about Nature and matter, came another deluded notion.
It is asserted that a single massless-dimensionless photon is ejected when the orbital height of an electron changes. For a photon to be detected on the surface of a sphere surrounding a central event, at a single site, the probability of ever detecting a photon is less than factorial 466,560,000 to one. There are 466,560,000 square arc seconds in a sphere. To get around this minor problem, it is accepted that as the single photon event occurs, where ever there is a detector positioned on the surface of the sphere, parallel universes cause each detector to observe the event. Because each detector responds to and registers the energy of the single photon event, it must be that, if 'n' is the number of detectors, the total energy released by a one photon event must be equal to the product of the number of detectors. As the photo-sensitive surface releases one electron for each photon detected, an infinite number of detectors will liberate an infinite amount of electricity. Consequently, the massless-dimensionless photon does not exist in science.
The frequencies in each series tell a different story, one of harmonics and sideband overtone resonance in the Hydrogen molecule and its crystal lattice, observed across the entire magnetic spectrum at harmonically related positions. Take the Lyman series and double the wavelength. There is no recognised series here. When the wavelengths are doubled again, some of the Balmer series appear, (Lyman x 4). So, there seems to be a missing series between the Lyman and Balmer series. To reach the Paschen series, the Balmer wavelengths need to be multiplied by 3, not two. Something appears to be wrong because the fundamental note is not in the Lyman series, for these are the shortest wavelengths, the upper harmonics of some other fundamental.
Starting with the standing state Hydrogen line in the Universe, a wavelength of 21.1061 cm, a frequency of 1.420406422 GHz, doubling produces the following sequence of harmonic frequencies. The harmonics, fifteen through to twenty appear in the upper IR and light regions of the spectrum.
(109) 1.420, 2.841, 5.682, (1010)
11.363, 22.726, 45.453, 90.91,
(1011) 181.81, 363.62, 727.25, (1012) 1454.5,
2908.99, 5817.98,
(1013) 11635.97, 23271.93, 46543.88, 93087.76, (1014)
186175.51, 372351.02, 744702.04,
(1015) 1489404.08, 2978808.17, 5957616.33, (1016)
11915232.66 ...
Since resonance works each way, the 1.420 GHz frequency may not be the fundamental note. A 440 Hz audio tone introduces resonance into chambers that normally resonate at 220, 110, 55 and 27.5 Hz. This argument will soon lead to a discussion about light and the means of propagation. The Hydrogen atom has only one electron, so to remove an electron or two from the Hydrogen molecule at the positive anode should create a molecule of one or two protons. The anode glow will be an emission of both light and protons. To saturate a vacuum tank with Hydrogen before evacuating it, wets the surfaces with Hydrogen molecules. An anode glow should deepen the vacuum as high speed protons would be ejected and travel into and through the walls of the containment vessel making the vessel radioactive. An external Geiger counter should detect the proton emission.
When a suitably high voltage is directly used to excite a gas in the partial vacuum, the magnetic radiation liberated (light, UV, IR and microwave regions) by the spark itself presents the atom's unique spectrum. This categorically states that the spark contains matter and that the magnetic radiation originates from the specific atoms and molecules that make up that matter. The atom's magnetic radiation signature is transferred by matter to other matter and may be absorbed in part or in full by other matter with the same magnetic radiation signature.
Certain chemical arrangements force susceptible atoms to eject electrons during frictional attack and external impact. The atom must be aligned correctly for the electron to be removed. Although the inert gasses fail to chemically react, when aligned in certain conditions temporary molecules may form. Temporary molecules occur when the inert gas experiences a magnetic change, however when the ionisation energy ceases, molecular instability causes the inert gas molecules to break apart. Although this is an ionisation effect, luminescence is not always observed. Ionisation produces positive and negative molecular changes where the magnetic field of the atom changes dramatically, and when it does, there may be an emission of magnetic radiation.
Even at extremely low pressures, free gas molecules and atoms will be seen from their emissions as forming a wet coating on all the surfaces inside the vacuum chamber. As it takes a great deal to dry these surfaces, deeper vacuums take longer to produce. Although the force of gravity is great, at the atomic level, molecules in contact with the surface experience a higher local magnetic effect. These wet surfaces allow the rarefied air molecules in contact with the electrode's surface to gain, lose and conduct electrons as a wet conductive region. As the voltage is increased, the wet surfaces of the insulated containment vessel become more conductive.
The Plasma Ball (figure 7-1) is a cold cathode vacuum tube. Since the Plasma Ball has no real applications, it is considered a novelty item. It is an evacuated glass spherical chamber or up-turned bell jar. At the centre is a negatively charged spherical electrode, a charge-ball. Although glass is a transparent electrical insulator, the molecular wet inside surface becomes conductive and acts as the other electrode. The glass confinement dome of the Plasma Ball, protects the observer from the extreme voltages, maintains the vacuum and allows observations. The extra high tension (EHT) voltage applied to the central electrode, the charge-ball, can be adjusted, so various electric field structures can be viewed in the rarefied gas.
The altered magnetic state of matter due to the high charge, in causing matter to become visible, the electric field can be observed, so that the mechanisms involved can be physically seen and described. As this device is relatively easy to make, other electrode designs and combinations can be incorporated to demonstrate the numerous electric field effects observed around and between different electrodes with different charges, temperatures and pressures. Franklin's observational summation of terrestrial events, like charges repel, ... does not apply at the atomic level. Such effects occur at the terrestrial level due to aerodynamic effects. The Plasma Ball identifies the aerodynamic principles involved and will better the understanding of the electric field as it reveals many of matter's hidden mechanisms, displaying the most important component of the electric field, charge cloud rotation. Due to the nature of the magneto-mechanical atom, the effects of atomic and molecular rotation, local-gravity and molecular pressure at the surface interface can be observed.
Magnetic molecules turn and align to other magnetic molecules, increasing the surface attraction by technically increasing the surface contact zone. charged rarefied matter groups magnetically together as a cloud with an increased molecular pressure on the charged surface. This allows electrons to migrate onto other rarefied gas molecules through magnetically induced collisions and molecular pressure. The addition or loss of an electron by the mechanical atom produces a rotation of the atom and molecule promoting a common rotation in the electrode's growing charge cloud.
Figure 7-1 The Plasma Ball
Previously, when describing two opposed fan motors (such as the Hydrogen molecule), it was stated, the fan-pair will produce a rotation around the structure's central axis. In linking magnetically, an electron added to or taken away from an atom produces an off-balance magnetic mechanical condition. Magneto-mechanical instability increases the rotational effect linking affected molecules in a spiralling structure. The glowing cloud structure rotates as it spirals to the centre if negatively charged. The positive charge creates the opposite effect, where the charged atoms rotate and spiral away from the centre.
An atom moving over a negative electrode picks up an electron and rotates to attach magnetically to other atoms, so these rotate around a common axis. Other affected molecules magnetically link with them, forming a growing spiral, picking up other electrons as the rotation increases along the structure's length. From the outer radius, the negative rotating cloud increases its rotational velocity and axial speed while travelling across the electrode's atomic surface to the cloud's centre. On reaching the centre, constriction produces a perpendicular projection, as an uplift from the surface to establish a convection cell as electrons migrate on molecules from the updraft into the rarefied atmosphere.
The colours displayed in the Plasma Ball are dependent on the gas molecules present. Normal rarefied air produces reds, blues and white. The primary rotating cloud is seen as a reddish glowing cloud swirling over the charge-ball's spherical surface. A form of Coriolis effect applies, which dependent on applied charge, the convective rotating cloud develops a particular rotation around the charge-ball in the Earth's magnetic field. The applied charge polarity develops as two completely distinct and unique cloud structures as molecules either gain or lose electrons.
The negative cloud is much like the tornado's storm cell with a central updraft. As the negative voltage is gradually increased, back pressure and rotation establish a central uplift vortex, a stress point through which a perpendicular tornado appears. The tumbling action so great, the tornado appears as a single red coloured streamer. The streamer is the precursor of the bright blue-violet spark. The rotating magnetic column adheres together due to the altered magnetic state of each molecule in the column. The convection cell mechanism limits the streamer's length. Between the central charge-ball and the inner glass surface, swirling sympathetic and parasitic convection cells or Eddy currents form in slipping layers that move at different speeds over the lower currents. Placing an insulated bar magnet near the charged electrode alters the break out point where the spark appears, as charged matter cells move around the charge-ball.
When the streamer's upper cyclone meets another convective cell's vortex, the streamer's length increases along that route, feeding two or more convection cells. As the streamer enters a different convection cell, its direction changes. The Plasma Ball's geometry promotes the formation of fork-arc structures of this type. Once the streamer establishes a discharge route, matter moves with great speed as a spark. The length of the tornado's streamer is dependent on the applied voltage, and the effective velocity and direction of molecules in the rarefied conditions. At this moment, consider the problem with the confetti that adhered to the Van de Graaff generator's charge ball for different periods of time. Confetti only adheres to regions of low molecular winds. When picked-up by the rapidly spiralling moving air cell, the confetti is carried over the surface and blown off in the uplift streamer, travelling for a considerable distance at a considerable velocity on the streamer.
As the voltage is increased, the diameter of the convection clouds in contact with the charge-ball decreases as the number of streamer tornados increase. Due to magnetic and Coriolis effects, the swirling clouds on the spherical surface force the classic coronal discharge event to rotate around the charge-ball. When viewed from above in the Southern hemisphere, the rotation of the coronal display is anticlockwise. (ie. The observed left side approaches the observer.)
The Plasma Ball shows that many stress points can exist in the electric field at the same time as small convection cells form across the charged surface. In every sense of the word, the electric field is molecular. Freed electrons do not jump from atom to atom or move independently. Rather electrons hitchhike on molecules, changing the molecule's magnetic moment and crystalline structure to force a fluid flow in mediums that allows such motion.
The obvious differences between positive and negative electric fields are observed when the charge-ball's polarity is changed. A positive charge-ball means that the inner surface of the glass produces the tornado structures for it must carry the negative charge. On the positive charge-ball, molecules with more protons than elprons develop magnetic rotational instabilities where the positive cloud rotates in the opposite direction. Molecular strings develop and travel from the centre across the charge-ball's surface as a cyclone having an eye. Neutral matter is drawn into the rotating convection cell's centre. As a cyclone establishes, the vortex pulls matter into it from the upper level of the convection cell. The cyclone rotates in the opposite direction to a tornado. When oppositely charged surfaces face each other, the cyclone and tornado link. A rotating blue-white matter stream will flow with common rotation. This funnelling column takes on a disjointed shape at first as cyclonic and Eddy cells converge on the tornado, routing the molecular path to different cyclone sites allowing conductivity. With very high voltages, a point is reached where the flow becomes so great, a burst-out event forms a single point-to-point electrical bridge, or continuous spark. When similar charges face each other, opposite rotation of molecular flows produces a repulsion. However, a stronger charge forces a common rotation between the surfaces. So, a more negative charge forces a negative charge to act as a positive charge until the charges are distributed when the environment reaches equilibrium with the charge.
The transfer rate of electrons from the negatively charged surface molecules to the rarefied matter and from the rarefied matter to the molecules on the inner glass surface, release surface atoms and molecules into the rarefied atmosphere, takes time. The increased activity of matter, molecular pressure and the altered magnetic state produces surface melting and ablation at each vortex Although there is deep pitting at the impact sites, the point-to-point flow grows stronger. The base of each pit no longer exists at the theoretical closest point. Vaporised matter extends the height of the conductive surface above the surface. The molecular impacts can be so intense, liberated magnetic radiation can range into extremely high X-ray frequencies.
Another molecular phenomenon can be measured as the voltage increases above the point-to-point single direct path. Magnetically altered molecules carrying hitchhiker electrons move from the negative surface, spiral along a tornado to the inner glass surface. Since the action occurs in one time frame and the reactions occur throughout subsequent time frames, Nature establishes a transfer limit. The electron must cross two or more interfaces before returning to the electrical pump, from the charge-ball to the rarefied gas and from the gas to the other electrode. At first, the rate of electron transfer progressively increases with voltage while the electrical resistance decreases until an optimum rate of electron transfer is reached for that vapour pressure. Above this optimum voltage, the matter-electron-matter transfer rate is limited as the electrical resistance increases with molecular wind speed and impact exchange.
In partly accepting the electrical theory of the day, (electrons exist in an electrical current as pure electrons) Lorentz failed to link very high voltage resistances to the properties of matter at the atomic level. To explain a vacuum's increase in resistance with voltage, he described a mathematical short-cut that gave near-enough answers. His research identified an upper limit to matter's electron exchange rate, however, Lorentz incorrectly argued, 'as electrons neared the speed of light, time is altered'. The mathematical short-cut of time dilation promotes as the mechanism, a mathematical illusion. At this time Kirchoff was still identifying the spectra of different atoms in flames and ionised gasses. The technology of the mid to late nineteenth century did not include atomic clocks, accurate counters, computers, an understanding of matter, the Periodic Table, or any means to confirm or deny Lorentz' unfounded notion. The time dilation effect is an unproven speculation without basis in Nature yet this deluded belief is intrinsic to the foundations of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, and more recently to Quantum theory.
When short-cut mathematical approximations are used to prove something as true in Nature, without considering Nature, the conclusions must be challenged, for they are most probably wrong, unscientific and deluded. To be scientific, irrespective of the atomic model, considering the available knowledge, primitive equipment, the state of technology, the researcher and student must ask of such research,
At the start of the twenty-first century, the resolution of the technology is such that the speed of electron transfer across a gap can be measured with some accuracy. It is noted that electron transfer is measurably slower at normal atmospheric pressure than in a vacuum.
When the Plasma Ball's design is slightly changed, different phenomena are observed. With three electrodes in the rarefied atmosphere, connected through a switchable ladder circuit, the first electrode can be made to carry a positive charge, the second made electronically neutral and the third a negative charge. In this configuration, the glass envelope will only be in circuit by way of surface wetting effects. As the neutral electrode exhibits a dual charge, electronically positive to the negative electrode and electronically negative to the positive electrode, it glows. The positive side of the neutral electrode forms a cyclone and the negative side forms a tornado. As each electrode can be switched out of circuit or its voltage varied, different effects can be observed, especially when all electrodes are configured with the same polarity. The ladder circuit can be examined with increasing potentials of the same polarity to show charge relativity.
The mirrored rotations of the oppositely rotating convective cells link the charge points together to produce an in-line rotating molecular tunnel. A conductor, when placed within the electric field, establishes a dipolar field with the charge. This is a magnetic induction effect. To illustrate the magnetic effects of the moving electric field, the magnetically altered atoms, a small conductive object, such as a coin, can be placed on the top of the Plasma Ball's transparent dome. Due to magnetic induction through the glass, an electrical current flows in the coin. The coin becomes so excited, it promotes a great deal of streamer activity, throwing sparks into the surrounding atmosphere. This capacitance effect has molecular magnetic origins, producing induction.
The electric field attracts molecules and atoms to the charge terminals (from the free surfaces), transferring charge through pressure in a field amplification effect. The affected molecules develop an altered magnetic state. The turbidity of the charged molecules is so great, they may fluoresce. The rotational inertia of the molecules and atoms promotes a molecular vortex, whereas the voltage increases, a spiralling tornado break out region develops at the centre of the vortex in a direction perpendicular to the rotation. The terms monopole and dipole become irrational in this situation, for electric fields form vortexes, pressure fronts, burst-out-points, cyclones and tornado flows. The magnetic flow-through field structure is not visible in electric field structures.
The electric field, as a molecular alignment field, its shape and properties are dependent on the voltage and the local environ's ability to produce an electric field. The shape is also modified by the shape of the electrode. When the Plasma Ball's central conductive sphere is replaced with a spike, the flow pattern or the vortex forms along and around the spike, forcing the stress point to the spike's tip. This confirms the fact that the electric field is molecular in origin, not sub-atomic.
The spark always originates at the negative charge tornado. With increased activity, a molecular electric field develops radiating outward from the electrode as matter aligns to the most efficient magnetic arrangement for the highest magnetic throughput. Neutral atoms are pushed onto the electrode by displacement and back pressure from atoms carrying hitchhiker electrons, altering the gas' chemical and crystal structure. As molecules and atoms impact, twist, roll-over, make and break bonds, different structures form.
Resonance, electrical conductivity and mechanical energy, can be observed in the classic discharge tube display. The air at normal temperature and pressure, in a half metre discharge tube, seemingly does nothing when 10,000 volts DC is applied to the electrodes. The electrical resistance decreases as air is removed and electrons begin to flow. The air immediately in contact with the electrodes begins to fluoresce due to molecular pressure impacts. A tornado air cell develops on the surface of the cathode while a cyclonic flow develops on the anode. At a Mercury pressure near 15-20 mm, the spiralling gas forms a coaxial convective cell. With a deepening vacuum, (10-15 mm) the cathode tornado progressively grows as a blue streamer spark, forking and routing. The spark does not travel directly to the anode, being deviated by the Coriolis effect and the Earth's magnetic field, spiralling and twisting as it slowly migrates along the length of the tube towards the positive electrode through disjointed convective cells. The shape of the spark is related to the position of the convective cells. Sympathetic coaxial Eddy cells develop at mathematically related positions along the length of the tube. With the spark reaching the anode, the electrical resistance decreases as a pink-red fluorescence grows from the anode.
As illustrated in figure 7-2, at pressures of 5-10mm, the coaxial convective mechanism segments the pink glow into dark regions and fluorescent striations. In the convergent region separating convection cells, fluorescent bands appear as atoms and molecules impact, collide, reverberate and change direction. Mechanical molecular resonance does not occur in the Crookes and Faraday dark spaces because the convection cell alignment prevents internal collisions taking place. In the bucket brigade of convergent zones, impact and hitchhiking electron exchange promotes resonance in the convergent zones. The cusp shape of each perpendicular column identifies the coaxial convective flow directions in the convergent zones, where the cells obey the principle of equilibrium as matter reaches the point of highest energy throughput and interchange.
The striation bands suddenly vanish when the vacuum is deepened to 0.01 to 0.001 mm, as the entire tube appears to fluoresce with a uniform intensity. Since the standing wave resonance characteristic of the rarefied gases can be observed in a spectroscope, this glow is not an effect of cathode rays hitting the glass, else the glass-spectra would be seen. The inside glass surface is wet by gas molecules. As the momentum of the molecules travelling in the beam will produce rotation in a small mica paddle wheel, the return flow can be observed in the Plasma Ball as the gas molecules flow across the inner surface. In the discharge tube, the increased molecular activity establishes the single coaxial convection cell between the cathode and the anode. Hitchhiking electrons migrate on the magnetically altered gas molecules so rapidly, resonance is sustained on both the direct and return paths.
Figure 7-2 The Classic Illustration of
Fluorescence in a discharge Tube
(A structure that remained a niggling mystery defying logical
analysis)
When a balanced magnet is held on a gimbal frame, it can swing in every direction around the balance point. As a similar magnet is made to pass by, both magnets spin about. If the velocity of the second magnet is increased, the magnet on the gimbal may not move as the second magnet passes by, however the magnetic fields of both magnets will be distorted. This effect is seen when moving atoms momentarily load the elprons in both atoms, causing a shock and subsequent reverberation, liberating magnetic radiation. As the magnetic repulsion of these atoms is so great the particles possess the wrong magnetic orientation for collision. There is a great deal of motion here, however collisions are avoided due to the convection cells moving in opposite directions directly at each other. The shape of the tube and its magnetic walls assist in creating the directional resonances events.
It is scientifically claimed that the gas laser works as a consequence of atomic separation and emission reinforcement of the liberated wave length. The gas laser is not a resonant chamber, and works irrespective of pressure changes. Resonance continues on the molecular sideband frequencies of the molecules involved, irrespective of molecular separation. It must be argued that if molecular separations were the cause, a separation increases with deepening pressure (from 10-3 to 10-8 mm) must cause the laser to sweep through resonant points and peaks. This being due to the structural requirements needed to produce a resonance at each wavelength. With a separation increase due to deeper vacuums, the frequency must progressively become lower. This is not observed! Once the gas begins to glow, pressure changes do not alter output frequency, intensity or produce beating. Figure 7-3 shows the construction of a typical gas laser.
Figure 7-3 The Gas Laser
The laser tube is a simple discharge tube, where the light beam is deliberately made to travel along the length of the tube before finding a semi-mirrored transparent hole. This allows the light beam to reflect backwards and forwards along the axis of the tube before it escapes. The gas is fluorescing, not the glass walls. The same spectral lines are seen when the particular gas is involved in a normal discharge tube event, in rapid chemical reactions, and again when nuclear events involve the production of the same atoms and molecules. Often, home electronics constructors toy with gas laser kits that run lethal voltages, when the laser tube can be stimulated into resonance using a low voltage radio frequency.
Oddly, the same argument of molecular separation is used to explain the Ruby Laser. The Ruby is a crystal of Corundum, an Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3), the same family as sapphire and emery. The red colour is due to traces of Chromium (parts per million). This solid crystal has a much higher density than any rarefied gas. A crystal rod of ruby is similarly coated with a mirror at both ends. The crystal is stimulated into emission with a bright flash of light.
It is necessary to appreciate matter, magnetic radiation and resonance, before any mechanism involving molecular separation is contemplated. In the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure will change the tuning of a pipe organ. If the true laser supposedly produces a coherent beam of light, then the beam must be monochromatic. Irrespective of the means promoting the laser beam, every laser has a spectrum composed of unique spectral lines. This states that irrespective of pressure and temperature, specific molecules and atoms are responsible for their specific resonance. There are several types of lasers, including gas laser, liquid dye, LED, and optically pumped lasers. Matter will be examined in the next chapter.
Thermionic Radio Valves : The Plasma Ball is a cold cathode device and as such can be made to simulate many radio valve effects. Cold cathode radio valves generally require high voltages to work. When the charge-ball is heated, the lowered viscosity of matter in the convection cells allows affected matter to travel faster, exchange electrons and permits atoms and molecules in contact with the heated atomic surface to carry more electrons. Heating a reduced voltage electrode may form multiple streamers in the coronal discharge event.
The simplest vacuum tube is the diode. Heating the cathode allows magnetically altered molecules to flow better in one direction than the other. This key point of the design creates the conditions needed to rectify an alternating current and to force a directed molecular current flow. Electrons are carried on molecular winds from the hot cathode to the cold anode at increadible speeds. This is also experienced in normal air. Although the Tesla coil is an air core transformer produces extremely low current ultra-high voltages, perhaps 1,000,000 V AC, local thermal warming of the air produces the conditions necessary for the atmosphere to act as a diode valve. Heating may arise from the trigger spark and the Tesla coil's resistance.
As illustrated by the Plasma Ball, around a single cathode, several anodes can exist at the same time, producing some very complex field situations. Another key point is that any metal electrode placed in the electric field (and not connected to the circuit) links with the field to develop a negative charge. This, the Edison effect can create several cathodes around the primary charge, allowing the field to discharge at a greater rate. The Edison effect is in part due to magnetically altered molecules settling on the conductor, where molecular pressure deposits electrons.
When a third element, a wire screen, open mesh or a spiral of wire, is placed between the cathode and anode, the characteristics of the diode valve are dramatically changed. Due to the Edison effect, this mesh fence or grid develops a negative charge and as the charge builds up, the flow of matter to the anode at first increases, but then the current flow begins to reduce. As the grid is not heated, it forms a cold cathode as it becomes more negative. A charge build up causes the valve to shut down. (Although this is said to be an effect of charge polarisation, it is an example of charge relativity. The local environment between the cathode and the cold grid becomes saturated, forming a localised molecular flow between the cathode and grid. Once the environmental conditions stop all conductivity, the cold grid discharges slowly into the greater environment. Since a cold cathode requires a high voltage, the molecular gap forms a high resistance that retards the molecular flow to the anode. This is a case of like charges attract, to the point where too much like charge stalls the effect.
In a triode valve, this problem is overcome when a bias voltage is applied to the grid. The desired effect is to lock the grid bias voltage at a point slightly more negative than the cathode. A negative voltage source, or a resistor placed externally between the cathode and the grid, maintains the bias voltage on the grid and a rapid throughput of charge carrying molecules to the anode. The value of the resistor depends on the valve's molecular circulation characteristics. These characteristics change as the vacuum is slowly contaminated, or as air leaks spoil the vacuum.
Although radio valve theory only concerns the motion of electrons moving across the gap, there are big differences in similar radio valves due to each valve's molecular circulation properties. Without this knowledge, radio valves evolved through trial and error. To obtain higher frequencies, radio valve manufacturers made the valve smaller and smaller. To increase the electrical current control, the valve's anode must be made from more resilient materials with more breather holes and ventilation space. The molecules must travel across the vacuum, from the cathode to the anode, and return to the cathode. Radio valves work in the voltage region below the level needed to create a spark or to fluoresce the gas, yet the molecular approach speed is so great (near the speed of light), molecules fly by and find themselves in the cyclone of the anode. At much higher voltages, the Plasma Ball shows these effects in the fluorescing gas. This is quite different to the belief that electrons form an electron cloud around the anode.
The negative bias voltage is important as hot molecules are accelerated in the convection cell away from the cathode. These magnetically challenged molecules enter the region of magnetically compatible molecules, hanging on the grid. This creates a great force of attraction, so the gas molecules accelerate and stream through, perhaps grabbing additional electrons on the way, to be caught in the anode's cyclonic flow. Magnetic molecules strike the anode with such velocity, the charge is exchanged. As they cross the anode, molecular pressure allows the anode to rob more electrons. Although these molecular effects are not normally observed in the vacuum tube, they can be observed in the Plasma Ball.
If it were that like charges repel and unlike charges attract, one would assume that to accelerate electrons across the gap, the grid should be made more positive than the cathode. If this happened, and the grid became positive with respect to the cathode, the grid becomes an anode. The results are most dramatic when this is attempted experimentally. A triode with a positive grid is a diode. This grid suffers the consequences of molecular bombardment, causing the grid circuit to dissipate so much energy that the effect may destroy the valve, melting or vaporising the grid. The grid must be more negative, but not too negative. This effect can be illustrated in a modified plasma ball.
Amplification is achieved in the basic thermionic triode valve amplifier circuit, (figure 7-4) as molecules carry electrons from the cathode across the vacuum through the negative open grid to impact with the positive anode, establishing a convection cell that must pass back to the cathode. The size of the convection cell and the physical resistance to molecular currents in the valve give the device its response time, resistance and establishes the valve's characteristics. Constricting the molecular flow through poor anode ventilation dramatically alters the valve's characteristics. Any voltage applied to the grid produces a change in the grid's matter cloud density. This varies the matter currents flowing across the valve. Effectively as the magnetically altered matter is carrying additional electrons, a small change in the grid voltage greatly alters the ability of the convection cell to transport electrons, thus, the output voltage and electrical current flowing in the valve are changed. This simple system allows the radio valve to amplify an electrical signal. Triode valves are not perfect amplifiers. To improve the response, more grids are placed between the signal grid and the anode. These can be used to accelerate matter and increase the output current, or to mix several signals together. The second grid is typically treated as another cathode.
Figure 7-4 A simple Triode Valve amplifier circuit
All the effects that occur within the thermionic valve can be made to occur in normal atmospheric conditions, however, the voltages needed are extremely dangerous, owing to the magnetic forces needed to overcome the crystalline resistance of the atmosphere (a form of inertia). As the electric field develops, similar events occur at voltages proportional to the number of molecules affected and the proximity of molecules in the environment. Electrons are flowing because molecules are physically carrying them.
Most of the active elements in a television picture tube exist in the neck of the tube. This is a simple thermionic valve with several anodes. The beam is formed in the electron gun (figure 7-5) by a heated cathode, which is attracted to and through a grid. The optics of the electron gun do not obey the laws of Optics. The focusing method employed in the picture tube must be described as either pseudo-optics or particle-beam optics. To create the picture, a beam must scan the image and then another beam must recreate the image, position by position across the screen. The scanning image recording beam must be synchronised and deflected to the same position on an image screen by either electric or magnetic means to recreate the image. A single frame is made of individual lines, where the analogue signal altering the beam current change carries the picture intensity information. The beam is made to move across the screen from left to right (depending on the nation's television standard), as 525, 625, or 1024 horizontal lines, while tracing a path down the screen, 50 or 60 times a second. Most television sets and monitors use magnetism to deflect the electron beam. An electromagnetic yoke, mounted at the base of the neck is used to deviate the electron beam. By altering the electrical current, opposite coil pairs form a magnetic field across the spiralling molecules in the beam. The interaction of each directed magnetic field to the beam's spiralling magnetic field causes the vertical coil to deviate the beam horizontally and the horizontal coils to deviate the beam in the vertical direction. Molecules carrying additional electrons are accelerated towards the first anode. The matter beam passes through the focussing rings. Matter adhering to the various circular grids affects the beam due to the commonly aligned magnetic fields aligning the beam. The spiralling tornado beam is expanded and compressed to be focussed as an extremely thin matter beam.
Voltage variations on this control grid produce brightness changes as the beam current alters. A hole in the electron gun's first anode allows the molecular beam to continue down the neck of the tube, carrying electrons to the screen. The high potential of the second anode a2, pulls the beam apart, while the voltage on a3, pushes the beam back together. Voltage variations on the third anode from -250 Volts (as a cathode) to +250 Volts, focus the beam as a fine dot on the screen. To discharge the screen, a pseudo-fourth anode, the molecular flow carries the charge to the fourth anode. This fourth anode, a4, is removed from the screen, and mounted around the cone shaped bell of the tube. It is electrically connected to the second anode.
Figure 7-5 The Optics of the Electron Gun
The optical effects and phenomena associated with the electron beam involve mechanisms belonging to Particle Physics in forming a synthetic or synthesis image. Wave optics form an entire image on the focal plane, where at any time, any part of the image can be observed. Particle optics use tricks to scan an image or the object. When light is focussed in a video camera, it is a wave optical image that is initially focussed. This is then converted into an analogue sequential string of voltage intensities for each position of the screen. To restore the image demands recreating the image intensity at each position on the screen, by altering the intensity of the electron beam.
Due to the disparity between wave and particle motion, the optics are completely different and should not be confused. Geometric ray tracing of the optical path may indicate similar effects and similar laws. Although similar optical effects are seemingly produced, the mechanisms and the responses differ markedly. Completely different mechanisms produce refraction, reflection, diffraction, transmission, propagation, and transparency. Particle optical events have characteristic traits not found in wave optics. Similarly, the mechanisms of wave optics produce effects that cannot be explained through particle theory. Some wave optical effects are mimicked by particle optics, while many others are not. As waves are formed from the motion of much smaller particles, the effect of the component particle may alter the wave's response. Wind curtains and conical flow structures are used in particle optics.
To produce the picture, very high voltages are required. Most monitors and television sets carry warnings about dangerous voltages, often between 10,000 and 30,000 volts DC. A high alternating voltage from the EHT transformer (similar to a Tesla Coil) is rectified to produce a directed electric field. The primary anode is around the screen itself. The electron beam is aimed at and focussed on the screen, so as to force the phosphor particles to glow. The molecular wind then flows across the screen's internal surface to the surrounding anode circuit. Only when a television set is initially turned-on, as the electric field establishes, are the static effects of the charged screen noticed, attracting dust and hair. Once the field is established, no longer does the screen seem to present the same force, although the dust particles continue to adhere to the screen. When the device is powered-down, the screen presents a charge that discharges. Some dust particles will fall from the screen.
Although the electron microscope should "see" atoms, because the electron is believed to be 1840 smaller than the proton, its resolution is dependent on the gas molecules in the evacuated space. The smaller the molecules used, the better the resolution. The second problem with particle optics is one of image rotation, where the image formed by a scanning particle beam twists as the beam intensity alters. To twist an optical image around the optical axis, does so around the direct line of sight, and this requires reflection. Optically, an image inverting prism does the trick, where a total internal reflection on a flat surface rotates the image. Although optical polarisation can be rotated, intensity and polarisation do not rotate the image.
In some B&W television sets of the 1950's, and most cathode ray oscilloscopes (CRO), two sets of deflection plates positioned inside the neck of the tube, but closer to the screen deviate the beam. The beam must pass through an altering electric field. Inside the picture tube the Bernoulli effect and aerodynamic principles deviate the beam as molecular wind curtains blow and bend the electron beam to a new direction. A vertically mounted pair of electrodes blows the beam from top to bottom, while the horizontal plates blow the beam from left to right. This introduces a fascinating optical problem. As the beam current alters the brightness on the screen, the changed beam current causes an image twist. This is not conducive with a theory that states the beam is moving electrons. The rotation is due to the beam's spiralling magnetic field interacting with the directed molecular wind curtain across the tube.
Disconnecting the scanning mechanism of a TV set stops the beam's motion. A small very bright dot appears at the centre of the screen, showing the cross-section of the beam. The small spot is surrounded by several disks of diminishing intensity, much like the Quantum mechanics Wave-particle description of the atom or a "bull's eye". If left to operate like this for any great length of time could result in a permanent phosphor burn.
A strange phenomenon, also called a coronal discharge is noted on some older monochrome television screens when a working television set is turned-off. Appearing as a bright spot a space charge or coronal discharge may appear and persist for several minutes. This is not the same effect as the coronal discharge found at the tips of an aerial, at the tip of the Tesla coil or above the charge-ball of a Van de Graaff generator or in a Plasma Ball.
As the rarefied gas has been contaminated by metal molecules, it presents a more conductive path to discharge the stored EHT voltage. A small bright dot appears at the centre of the screen surrounded by a pair of rings of decreasing grey-scale. The intensity of each ring is uniform (figure 7-6). The cross-sectional geometry of the picture screen reveals that the centre of the screen is the closest point. Molecules carrying electrons are no longer focussed by the circuitry. They travel through the rarefied gas to the screen, discharging into the environment.
This motion is confirmed by placing a small magnet near the bright spot. As the moving atoms carry electrons in the direct beam, a spiralling magnetic field is developed around the beam. The directed magnetic field causes the entire concentric structure to move and roll as a unit away from the magnetic pole. This reveals that each concentric ring is produced by similar magnetically altered molecules moving to the screen in the same direction with the same velocity. When the molecules strike the screen, the excited phosphor liberates light depending on charge intensity. The geometry of the electron gun at the back of the picture tube reveals the answer. As the electron beam normally travels from the cathode through the grid to the focussing anode, when the set is turned-off, the anode and grid become negatively charged due to the Edison effect. Three or more different cathodes now exist in the neck of the tube and discharge to the picture screen.
Figure 7-6 The Television's Corona discharge Although many cosmologists believe that blackholes and neutron stars are the only cosmological objects that naturally produce X-ray emissions, the Sun, Jupiter and the Earth are known X-ray sources. Detectable in space are X-rays liberated by the enormous voltages and high currents in the lightning spark. As the Plasma Ball indicates, the spark is not just a flow of electrons, it is a flow of hypersonic matter. When matter strikes matter with sufficient force and atoms physically collide, X-rays and other magnetic radiation frequencies are produced by resonance. The beam needed to create the television picture causing the illumination, strikes the phosphor with such force, sufficient X-rays are liberated that a piece of photographic paper wrapped in an opaque dark material and attached to the screen, will be exposed.
Matter beams were first identified in 1897, by J.J.Thomson in the positive ray experiment. Using extremely dangerous voltages (around 50,000 Volts) Thomson's device (figure 7-7) reverses the basic cathode ray tube design, forcing the tube to act (as he believed) as a cold anode device. Theoretically, positive matter leaving the circular anode travels towards the ring cathode and on through the tube to make the phosphor glow. Thomson deviated this positive matter beam with directed electric and magnetic fields. This device produces some very interesting illusions.
To Thomson, these illusions indicated a reverse beam travelling from the anode to the cathode, so he argued that as the energies required to produce cathode rays, being much less than for anode rays, then the two beams are intrinsically different. He concluded that one beam must be electrons and the other must be atoms. Because of the disparity in energy levels, and that different masses seem to strike the phosphor at different positions, the deflection must be related to the atomic mass. As this effect is indicative of the mass, then an indicator is used in the mathematics, so the mathematics seem to work. The problem is Thomson's descriptive analysis.
To reconcile Thomson's positive ray device with the rotating molecular clouds of the Plasma Ball, it is possible to explain this device and the illusion completely. The instrument's design promotes the observed effects and produces several observational illusions. One must throw away the notion of a cold anode and replace it with a cold cathode ring. This is pure particle-beam optics using conical flows. Irrespective of the shape of Thomson's anode, because a cyclone wind is formed, the anode becomes a ring. With an increase in voltage, the convective molecular field shape between the negative cathode ring and the positive anode forms a high velocity centralised swirling return flow. For the over-shoot beam to focus demands applying a considerable amount of energy.
Figure 7-7 Thomson's Positive Ray experiment
Neutral and positive matter returning from the anode ring is forced to constrict along the axis of the tube as a spiralling tornado-like return flow, from the hypothetical centre of the anode, the apparent anode ray illusion will appear. The anode does not need to have a hole at its centre. The high voltage applied between the cathode and anode increases the molecular flow and back pressure at the anode's circumference. This forces the spiralling mass to cross the anode in the reverse direction as it is neutralised. On reaching the centre, the compression is so great, the return molecular flow forces a perpendicular fountain, a return flow. When the voltage is sufficiently high, an overshoot condition occurs and the beam focuses on the screen. In the Plasma Ball situation, similar ring electrodes serve to identify the conical molecular flow structure formed in the positive ray tube.
As the beam current increases, the picture twists. When the magnetic deflection fields are suddenly switched-out of circuit, the beam deviation ceases. Because moving magnetically altered atoms form the beam, when the beam travels over an irregular pole-piece, the atoms are deflected in opposite directions. This is conclusive proof of the motion of atoms in the electron beam. It does not identify the electron's shape, any new particle, or magnetic electrons, yet was cited by Pauli as the penultimate reason for accepting quantum spins because the Rutherford model of the atom could not explain the effect. Pauli gave the orbiting electrons opposite spins.
Size 17,440
---------------
Return to Chapter 6 |
Return to Table of Contents
| Advance to Chapter 8 |
Removed Text
The sciences must be based in Nature's Universe to correctly explain Nature. However, rather than describing natural events at the atomic level through a common mechanism's natural effects, scientific explanations use contradiction and complexity based on deluded physical and mathematical models derived from predictive parallel short-cuts, approximations, generalisations, empirical expressions and tricks. In spite of Nature and natural processing operations, with notions and ill-conceived theory explaining observations, early researchers hijacked and promoted terrestrial observational effects as the responsible mechanism. Since the sciences accepted these terrestrial illusions as Nature's very being, the scientific community enforces the use of this invalid scientific belief-set as the means to explain all new observations. In failing to adequately describe Nature's Universe, tendentious theory grew stronger as the sciences became more contradictory and preternatural. The scientific community's practice of accepting and maintaining invalid historical artefacts, as unquestionable scientific beliefs, actively spawned much deluded theory and created greater mysteries. Scientific mysteries only exist because Nature does not obey humanity's preternatural scientific laws. Unfortunately, as blind ignorance, indoctrination, and scientific arrogance categorised the necessary fundamental natural processes as scientific mysteries, scientific explanation only becomes possible outside the scientific community.
One must be very careful endorsing the accepted scientific belief-set concerning the physical and chemical behaviour of matter and energy, when the sciences use parallel and unrelated explanations describing a plethora of events and diverse observational effects that incorrectly define and wrongfully attribute numerous process effects as unique mechanisms (such as; current, potential, force, conductivity, ionisation, polarisation and coronal discharge). An observed event need not be produced by a common inferred mechanism, or for an inferred common process without explanation as being responsible for a diverse range of non-related events and effects. To avoid confusion, inferred mechanisms must be qualified by a suitable adjective, attributing the observation to the correct cause and definition.
Under the scientific community's Utopian ideal enforcing historically accepted definitions, where upper and lower resolution effects prohibit certain scientific mysteries being satisfied, despite advancing technology negating all previous explanation, the sciences maintain ignorance. Excellent examples appear in Cosmology where ego, religious beliefs, indoctrination, seeing conditions, and a telescope's light gathering power, establish the upper limit as the size and age of the visible Universe. It must be seen as a naive and egotistical indulgence to accept without basis and proof, the radial size of the technologically limited visible Universe as the actual age of the Universe, (stated as being either, 13, or 15, thousand million years).
-----------
Although the directed magnetic field does not seemingly alter the electric field and the electric field does not appear to alter a directed magnetic field, theory states that when an electric field moves with respect to a stationary object or in a gravitational field, it produces a magnetic field. The direction of the field being dependent on the charge and the direction of motion. With respect to any stationary position in space, every electric field on the Earth must be seen as a magnetic field because it involves moving charges. The electric field cannot be considered as a stand alone field when the surrounding environment establishes the opposite-terminal (even in a deep vacuum). Electric fields only exist in the environment when conditions allow the field to develop. The processes taking place around the charged body at the atomic level become important