Any discussion of critical thinking must begin by looking at what it is. There are many definitions of critical thinking including that of Ennis. In 1987, he defined it as the process and skills involved in rationally deciding what to do or what to believe. The NCTE Committee on Critical Thinking and the Language Arts includes an attitude of suspended judgment in their definition. This addition of an attitude is important as one considers the implications of these definitions on the classroom teacher and environment (Tama, 1989, May).

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom developed a taxonomy of learning that included the critical thinking skills analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (http:www.lgc.peachnet.edu/academic/educatn/Blooms/critical_thinking.htm). These skills were classified by Bloom as the highest levels of thinking. Raths, Jonas, Rothstein and Wassermann found that there was a lack of emphasis on thinking in schools in 1967 (Carr, 1990). In 1980, when the Rockefeller Commission on the Humanities recommended the inclusion of critical thinking as a basic skill to the U. S. Office of Education, it was again brought back into the forefront of educational theory. Since that time, the call for improved critical thinking has become a central focus of the school improvement and the standards movements. The development of critical thinking skills is a central component of the United States' national education goals and was supported by both the elder George Bush and Bill Clinton (Riedel, S., Morath, R. & McGonigle, T., 2001, July). It is also an element of both state and local curriculum guides (Howe, R & Warren, C., 1989). Additionally, since 1983, reports on education by business and industry have indicated that our schools need to add emphasis to the teaching of higher level learning skills including critical thinking skills (Howe R. & Warren, C. 1989). Further, the military has concluded that training in critical thinking is needed in order to promote better leaders. And, the National League for Nursing has added a demonstration of critical thinking skills to graduation requirements (Riedel, S., et al, 2001, July).

In 1983, A Nation at Risk was published and brought attention to the idea that the American education system needed to be reformed. Though some have questioned its conclusions, it is generally accepted that change was needed in the way that Americans addressed the learning process. Since the publication of A Nation at Risk, state and federal governments have taken great strides to exert control over education in this country. The Education and Secondary Education Act of 1994 and its 2001 update, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act, are among the latest federal tools being used to shift control of schools away from local communities. As a result of these acts, schools across the country are facing annual testing of students and having their institutions rated based on student performance on those exams. Additionally, in states like Indiana, principals and others are being held responsible for the level of learning that is taking place in their buildings.

The standards movement identifies those things that a student should accomplish and/or learn in a given classroom during a year of school. Further, standards-based education requires that data be collected, analyzed and used to show the student's individual level of learning at the beginning and end of the course. It is no longer acceptable to state that learning has taken place; one must be able to prove that learning has taken place.

Students can not suddenly develop the means of thinking critically. However, research such as Project Intelligence conducted through Harvard by Herrstein, Nickerson and others indicate that it is possible to teach in ways that help students become better thinkers (Riedel, S., et al, 2001, July). Herrstein used some of his research in a later text, The Bell Curve, to express his personnel beliefs, but his findings in the Harvard project are generally considered to be definitive.

There is some controversy as to the best means of teaching critical thinking. Some maintain that a process method is needed in order to teach students how to think. This group feels that like reading and writing educators should teach thinking critically as an isolated skill. This theory is justified by the need to use critical thinking throughout the curriculum rather than associating it with one particular discipline. Additionally, this method would avoid the practice of teaching basic methods critical thinking methods over and over ("Critical Thinking Skills and Teacher Education," 1988).

Those promoting a content approach to teaching critical thinking skills seek to avoid the need to add an additional course to the curriculum. They also believe that there are cognitive skills that are intrinsic to particular disciplines and are therefore better taught by experts in those fields ("Critical Thinking Skills and Teacher Education," 1988). Additionally, it is maintained that this method is more easily infused into the current educational system (Nisbet, 1990, July).

Whether one is a believer in the process or the content approach there is a general agreement that there are skills that are applicable across the curriculum. Winocut identified these skills and divided them into three categories: 1) Enabling skills, 2) Processes and 3) Operations. The state of California has also created their model categories: 1) Defining and clarifying the problem, 2) Judging information related to the problem, and 3) Solving problems/drawing conclusions (Howe, R. & Warren, C., 1989).

Content knowledge is essential to the critical thinking process. Through the evaluation of research concerning test results using Bloom's Taxonomy and other data, Howe and Warren concluded that students are not able to effectively use thinking skills without needed knowledge (Howe, R. & Warren, C., 1989). Context knowledge also aids in the implementation of the Socratic method of questioning which has been referred to as the heart of critical teaching ("Critical Thinking Curriculum Model Educational Components," 2001).

Hayes and Alvermann coached teachers in a variety of methods in order to improve critical thinking. Through their research on coaching teachers it was found that students added critical analysis and were able to add an increased proportion of content centered discussion if the teachers changed the ways in which they directed the class. Hayes and Alvermann coached teachers to increase their acknowledgment of student remarks and to respond to students more elaborately (Tama, May 1989). Tobin and others have also shown positive effects on student thinking through the use of wait time (Stahl, R., May 1994).

Research also indicates that students are more likely to use critical thinking skills if they are provided real-life situations or situations that simulate real-life (Howe, R. & Warren, C., 1989). This method requires that students be able to transfer both content and process knowledge to new situations. Marilyn Jager Adams suggests the use "bridging" in order to provide opportunities to "bridge" the gap between the classroom and the students' lives (http://www.mdk12.org/practices/good_instruction/projectbetter/information_lit…/il-18-19.htm). Traditional methods of teaching critical thinking skills have focused on technology. These methods are generally seen as effective if the programs used are aimed at higher level thinking skills. Classification games were pointed out by several as a reliable means to teach logical thinking (Carr, 1990).

The current educational reform climate focuses on the teaching of standards as a means of improving student achievement. Many state and national curriculum guides have goals and objectives that call for the improvement of critical thinking skills. Teachers are faced with a need to develop skills and methods to achieve these standards, goals and objectives. Additionally, teachers must be able to prove that learning has taken place through the collection of data.

Though critical thinking has become a focus of current educational literature, it is important to remember that these skills are not new. Bloom and Piaget addressed critical thinking skills. Further, critical thinking skills were used in the questioning methods employed by Socrates and reported historically by Plato.

Critical thinking is defined in a variety of ways and may be taught many ways. However, there is general agreement that all students can and need to learn critical thinking tools and how to apply them in real-life. There is also a consensus that the teaching of these skills is not an easy process. Teachers need to be experts in their content areas and have well planned lessons that focus on a specific end.

Within the classroom, teachers encounter a diverse student population. Critical thinking is not the same as intelligence. Critical thinking is a skill that may be improved in everyone ("Critical thinking Skills and Teacher Education," 1988). Further, research points to a need that our society has for all students to develop these skills. Critical thinking skills are vital for all students to learn, to work and to survive in the twenty-first century. Through improvement in national teaching content standards that focus on creating multiple paths to learning, content knowledge, creating a learning environment that is inviting and safe in addition to implementing self-reflection teachers will be better able to address the future needs of today's learners.

In 1995, in conjunction with a study of needs of the new workforce, Earl Hunt asked the question, "Will we be smart enough? A new job category in the "real-world" has recently been created, the "knowledge worker." These workers will be required to carry out multi-step operations, manipulate data and acquire new information (Riedel, S., et al, 2001, July).

But, beyond the classroom and the work world, one needs to consider a remark made by former British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillian, "which implied that the greatest goal of education, even at Oxford, is to be able to recognize when a man 'is talking rot'" (Totten, 1990, Spring).

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