Understanding drug
problems and the Root causes of the drug problem in the Northeast India:
Leban
Serto and Dr.Satwanti
Department
of Anthropology,
University
of Delhi.
In the words of Elwin Verrier, (1957), "
But opium is the destruction of all things. No art can flourish, no virtue or
discipline can be maintained, no plans for development will be successful in
the areas where this problem remain unsolved".
The
drug subculture
All
around the world there exist a drug subculture, joining people with an
overwhelming need for some artificial means to cope with daily existence. At
one time these groups often belonged to the lower economic classes. This is no
longer the case. Today drug abuse has invaded schools, financial institutions,
businesses, the entertainment field, sports arenas and government
administrations. In many professional circles, drug abuse had taken on an aura
of toleration or acceptability .In many developed countries drug use is
considered a symbol of sophistication, an exciting experience or a harmless and
amusing pastime. These permissive attitudes have led to moral evaluation of
drug abuse that is misleading and highly dangerous. The drug subculture had
always isolated itself. It has its own language and mores, and its own set of
perverted values. It considers itself outside and beyond the law, apart from
the rest of society. The practitioners have deliberately created a 'cult of
exclusion', if you do not take drugs, you are not 'with it'. The language is
graphic; 'coke head', 'junkie', spaced out', 'stoned', 'hophead'. All of these
terms described those who are not in control of themselves or of their lives.
Gupta (1991) stated that before going into the provisions of law in India, one
also needs to consider the uses of certain glossary of words and expressions
that are used in the drug-world everywhere and in the nature of things. It
contains expression usually regarded as dirty or indecent. But, that is no
reason for us to avoid getting familiar with them ourselves and to know what
these terms and expressions imply in slang language of drug scene. This would
enable us to detect early if our children are getting hooked on drugs.
Drug Use
A
drug is a substance that alters the way in which the body functions. This very
definition covers a wide range of things, some of them like antibiotics, are
normally used in medical advice . Other such as some headache mixtures is
freely available to general public. Psychotropic drugs are of varies kind. They
are mind-altering drugs. Alcohol and tobacco are considered as psychotropic
drugs, so are the barbiturates, tranquilizers, sleeping tablets, cannabis,
glue, LSD, and heroin. Tea and coffee are also considered as psychotropic
drugs. This substance varies enormously both in relations to their effects on
mental state and their potential dangers. LSD is so powerful that even a single
experimentation may sometimes have tragic, results. Others such as tobacco do
not normally produce major changes in the short term, yet have a devastating
toxic, and long-term health hazards associated with its use.
Psychotropic
drugs may also be understood as 'soft' and 'hard' depending upon whether or not
they are addictive. Sometimes drugs have been categorized in relation to their
medical role, availability, legal status, chemical structure, mode of ingestion
or in relation to their specific effects, whether they are stimulants,
depressants or hallucinogens.
Why
do people take drugs
The
reasons why people turn to narcotics are as varied as the types of people who
abuse them .One of the greatest obstacles in combating the growing abuse of
drugs has been identifying the cause of the deviant behavior. However, whatever
the cause, the important message to get across is that all drugs are dangerous
and the deliberate ingestion of drugs for non-medical reasons is wrong and
harmful to the individual, the family, the community the society and the
nation.
History
of Drug Use
Drug use is as old as mankind. The history of
the human race has also been a history of drug use. Since the earliest times,
herbs, root, barks, leaves and plants have been used to relieve pain and help
control diseases. In and of itself, the use of drugs does not constitute an
evil, drugs properly administered, have been a medical blessing. Unfortunately,
certain drugs initially produce enticing side effects, such as feeling of
euphoria, a sense of 'feeling good', elation, serenity and power. What began as
something of a recreational activity evolves in no time into a problem of
dependence and abuse. During the twentieth century 'drug misuse' has become
widely regarded as one of the world's great social problem. It is abundantly
clear that all over the world various types of drugs are increasingly being
used excessively, unwisely and often harmfully. At the same time the
pharmaceutical industry is producing an almost unbelievable range of new drugs
to meet the ever growing demand for substance that can allay depression and
anxiety, dull pain, stimulate or aid sleep. Mankind has a love-hate
relationship with drugs. They inspire awe, fear and even lust. Professor
Griffith Edwards (1971) had perceptively described the complexity of the
situation; If you were to fly low over any part of the earth's land surface,
you would have a fair chance of before long seeing below you some process of
drug cultivation. You would see vineyards, coffee plantations, wide areas,
where the tobacco crop shaped the economy, fields of opium poppy, patches of
lank Indian hemp flowering even on vacant city lots. The coca plant grows on
the slopes of the Andes, so that those six million peasants shall obtain their
cocaine. Even the desert has the peyote cactus. As you looked down on the great
industrial countries it would be the factories, however, rather than the fields
which would properly catch your attention. Modern technology spills out its
tranquilizers, stimulants, analgesics and antidepressants by the billions, and
the chemists much improves on cactus and mushroom. You would know that everywhere
below varieties of actors were in the arena and with extraordinary
changeability of roles. Sometimes that state would sell
the
drug and take the profit, sometimes the profit would go to the legally
entrepreneur, sometimes that role would be played by the man with the mule
train who makes his way over the mountain paths. The money at stake is immense
and countries might finance their treasuries to a large extent from drug
revenues. Conflicts of opinion are violent, the state's response to unpermitted
use draconian. The situation on which you looked down would, however seem to be
characterized by an unusual degree of confusion, a drug which was permissible
yesterday might tomorrow be prohibited, a drug which for one society was of
importance in religious sacrament might in another place be preached against
.You could conclude that one of the main business of the world was to
cultivate, manufacture, advertise, legislate on, tax, consume, adulate and
decry mind-acting substances. The complexity of the matter is overwhelming, its
ramification endless.
Drug misuse is increasing dramatically in almost every country in the world. The organized and violent drug trafficking syndicates are exploiting the growing numbers of politically unstable countries to cultivate and store drugs. Trafficking organizations are bartering different drugs among themselves and using each other's route to increase their profits.
Drug Misuse
There
are various reasons for drug addiction, e.g. social pressure, rebellion to seek
attention and to assert independence, bad company, parental example, overwork,
loneliness or lack of positive role in society, poor medical care and real
mental illness. For most teenagers and adolescents, experimenting with drugs is
for fun or for recreation to start with or is a part of a normal exploratory
'growing-up'. The College and University campuses are the fertile fields for
all these funs. It may also extend to other areas of life and need not
necessarily be confined to institutions only. Fun, in the use of drugs or in
its own natural way, may eventually lead to fatality, Hamburg et al, 1975;
Elkind, 1978; Chen et al, 1995.
Insufficient
knowledge about substance of abuse also leads to dangerous consequences, even
in expert hands .In 1884, the famous psycho-analyst of Vienna, Austria-Sigmund
Freud (1856-1939), experimented with ingesting cocaine powder and described it
as a wonder drug that lifts the spirit, decreases fatigues, relieves impotence
and cures depression. Freud used cocaine to treat his friend, Von Fleishel, for
morphine addiction, but the patient became addicted to cocaine and developed
'cocaine psychosis' during which he was delirious and saw snakes crawling over
himself. In 1885, Freud was accused of unleashing cocaine as the third scourge of
humanity, after alcohol and opiate. As more of his patients became addicted,
Freud turned from promoting cocaine to opposing it. Lack of knowledge about
pharmacological effects of cocaine at the time was the reason for this
therapeutic scandal, even in the hands of experts. It is apparent that drug use
in general is the outcome of interactions between the drug and the personal
characteristics of the individual and the environment. This view is now
generally accepted and few people would suggest that either drug use in general
or drug dependence is caused by any single factor. Drug use certainly stems
from any reasons and is the subject of many research interests, for example,
biological, social, psychological, historical and economic. It would be
unrealistic to conclude that research in any single field had all the answers.
Some
of the more apparent contributing factors to drug abuse are outlined below:
Peer pressure
One
of the most commonly given reasons for initial drug use is peer pressure. A
very large number of studies support this view. These range from surveys of
teenage drinking and smoking to studies of how people first became cannabis
smokers or users of the illegal drugs. It is clear from all the evidences that
most people begin using drugs, if not from curiosity, then from peer pressure,
and probably from a combination of both. In addition it is evident that friends
of their own age and background introduce most youthful drug takers to drug
use. Hamburg et al., 1975; Elkind, 1978; Gupta, 1991; Chen et al; Kandel,
1995;Eicher, 1996. This conclusion appears to be as applicable to heroin
injectors as to cannabis smokers. The phenomenon of 'proselytizing' or seeking
to convert others to drug use was widely discussed in relation to heroin use
during the 1960's in the west. However in the North east the phenomena is more
recent, sometime in the early 80's or so, the influence of the western culture
has reached an alarming proportion .The blind imitation of the west has also
resulted in the drug culture among the youths in the northeast region, Ghonglah
(1996). There is plentiful evidence to support the view that peer pressure is
often a potent reason for beginning or continuing drug use, Kumar et al,
(1996). This conclusion rest largely upon self-reporting by drug users who may
be reluctant to concede that their use was motivated by any 'abnormal' causes.
It is also possible that disturbed or 'impressionable' individuals may be
particularly susceptible to peer pressure. This is consistent with the frequently
expressed criticism that drug use is sometimes due to 'falling into bad
company'. It is clear that people will normally be influenced by those whom
they regard as acceptable, if not exemplary, people whom they like and wish to
be accepted by. It is important to note that most young people do appear to be
'converted' to drug taking by others of their own age on a friendly and
obliging basis.
Curiosity
Numerous
studies of drug use in social setting report that curiosity is often stated to
be the reason for initial drug use. This is as true of alcohol and tobacco as
it is for ganja and other drugs available locally. So much has been written and
said about drugs that many people are tempted to experience them out of curiosity.
The first taste, and its effect on the user, greatly influences whether the
individual continues taking drugs. The younger the age at which an individual
first tries drug welcome in the new environment, where drug use is acceptable,
can lead to disastrous results, for the individual and for the society as a
whole, Blum et al ,1979.
Changing social structure
One
of the main factors leading to drug abuse is the deterioration or shifting
patterns of an existing social structure. When a unit that has served as a
support group for its members begins to change, some members may be unable to
adapt, they will look for refuge and may seek it in the world of drugs. This
disturbing deterioration or shifting of the social fabric of the community or
family, this deviation from old, established norms can lead some people down a
perilous path of increasing drug abuse and drug trafficking. Merton's (1951)
distinction between two aspects of cultural structure is as useful now as it
was almost 50 years ago. He defined them as consisting of the following
elements; culturally defined goals, purposes and interest led out as legitimate
objectives for all or for diversely located member of the society. The goals
are more or less integrated -the degree is a question of empirical facts and
roughly ordered in some hierarchy of value ,involving various degree of sentiment
and significance, the prevailing goals comprise a form of aspirational
reference. These are the things worth striving for .The second element of the
cultural structure defines, regulates and control the acceptable mode of
reaching out for these goals. Every social group invariably couples its
cultural objectives with regulation, rooted in the mores of institution of
allowable procedures for moving towards these objectives. These regulatory
norms are not necessarily identical with technical or efficiency norms.
According to Affinih,(1999) ,drug traffickers , just like other members of
society have aspirations and wants, but when the opportunity structure of
society are limited due to such structural crises as massive unemployment, many
adopt illicit means of attaining culturally defined and socially acceptable
goals. Drug traffickers belong to a group that Merton,(1951) defines as
innovators. Like this they accept cultural goal and reject social mean for
achieving goal. In the process however they alter the social structure.
Urbanization and unemployment
In
many parts of the world, the exodus of people take place from rural to urban
areas in search of work and a better life continues. Often these people face
certain obstacles for the first time. Separation from family members and
traditional values and support structures can lead to loneliness, isolation and
despair, Charles et al 1994; A lack of schooling and other skills often translates
to unemployment, the nature of the problem in general maybe difficult to adjust
to. Many of the problem associated with creating new life-style can lead
individual to turn to drugs.
Constitutional ( Biological)
This
is concerned with either biological predisposition's or with the relationship
between a drug and the body. Research conducted among animals has shown that
sometimes there does exist a genetic predisposition to use of specific drugs
(UN report 1989). There is a growing body of evidence that inherited factors can
predispose some people to develop alcohol-related problems .Such factors
interact with availability, social context and other important influence of
drug use. During recent years considerable interest and excitement has been
caused by the discovery that the body produces opiate-like substance. It has
been known for over twenty years that the human brain has specific receptors
for opiates. These receptors, in addition to responding to externally produced
opiate such as morphine and heroin, respond to a group of internally produced
peptides .Some of these substances called endorphins (literally the body's own
morphine) closely resemble opiate. It is evident that the receptors excited by
such substances are concentrated in the pathways of the brain that are
concerned with the perception of pain. In consequence it is an important and
intriguing possibility that the development of opiate dependence by some people
or, even the general use of certain drugs, may be explained by the ability of
some substances to modify the perception of profound experiences such as
pleasure and pain.
Level of intelligence
It
is a common place belief that drug dependence is at least partly attributable
to personality peculiarities. Even so the evidence to sustain this view is
confusing to say the least , because it is based upon various groups of drug
takers compared with various 'others'. It does appear that opiate users are
probably no more extroverts than 'normal' people, but they are more neurotic.
It has been observed in many of the drug users in the North east, that the
anxiety level is extremely high. This is evident from the fact that the drug
users have the tendency to be more neurotic especially those who abuse opiate
and its derivative. It has been observed that most of the drug users are
literate and are also of average or above average intelligence. This conclusion
is found by the survey conducted on drug users in treatment , education and
rehabilitation centers and in the general population. It was observed that
almost all the youths had already passed the matriculate exams baring a few who
were just fourteen -fifteen year old. However we can say that drug takers vary
a great deal in their intelligence and there is little support for the view
that drug use is caused in many cases by lack of intelligence. One of my
observation of the intelligence level of the drug users in the northeast is
that , the users maintained a deep secrecy of their habits. They operate within
a vicious circle, how they procure and get their fix is difficult to see unless
one is accepted within their fold. As Eicher (1996) also found in Churachandpur
that " the way in which they take and share drugs involves an intimate
behaviour pattern."
General psychiatric state
Most
of the drug users in the North east are treated in the rehabilitation centres
.They either joined voluntarily or were pressurized by the family members.
There were cases also where the fear of the insurgent groups taking action upon
them for the drug habits compelled them to take shelter in the rehabilitation
centres. Case studies recorded by Doctors in the rehabilitation centers
revealed that there are persons with general psychiatric disorder and they try
to find solace in the drugs but in the long run only accelerated the problem.
There are also multiple drug users who keep substituting one for the other and
finally could not take it anymore. This made them look out for psychiatric
treatments. It becomes possible that both psychiatric disturbance and drug
taking may be caused by same factor. It cannot necessarily be assumed that they
invariably lead to each other.
Sex
Males
appear far more likely than females either to use most psychotropic drugs(
tranquilisers and depressants) or to be heavy users or dependent upon such
substances Moon et al , (1999); Ellickson et al, (1999). However the present
study has been confined to male population in the NE India. Because so far only
male rehabilitation centres have been opened, with the exception of one Shehna
bhavan where there is treatment for girls in Imphal. Maybe due to the
biological disposition , and also due to the cultural practices prevalent in
the region, the male are predisposed to the drug taking habits much faster. The
Social pressures have also inhibited the females even from using legal and
socially approved drugs such as alcohol and tobacco although these inhibition
are waning fast
Age
Most
of the users are found in very young ages, especially just after puberty they
fall easy victim to the drug habits. Many of them between the age group from
15-19 years become easily influenced, Sarkar et al, 1991; Chen et al, 1995;.
There has been speculation about whether or not age causes drug use or drug
dependence. It is probable that youthful anxieties and sexual uncertainties may
sometime encourage the use of drugs that enhances relaxation. The youth at this
age seems to find the drug use attractive . They find it hard to withhold the
peer pressure and become easy victims. In the pre-adolescence period, there are
not many cases of drug abuse . Perhaps during this age they still remain under
strict parental care and are also not able to experience much outside exposure.
However some cases of adolescents taking to drugs earlier is reported but that
is still very negligible.
Drug use as self-medication
It
has been observed that many of the youth prefer to self medicate. They are
familiar with most of the drug prescriptions and would resort to drugs like spasmo-proxyvon
to substitute it for heroin. There are cases where the youths would take all
kinds of drugs as an experiment and would also combine two or more on certain
occasions. Therefore in most cases they are multiple drug users. Upon the
question of preference , there is no substitute to heroin it remains the drug
of choice.
Family disturbances
Much
attention has been focused on the family background of drug takers, especially
of drug dependent individuals in treatment institutions. In the study of
Charles et al ( 1994) , it has been noticed that a high proportion have come
from abnormal or disturbed homes and that excessive drug use or drug dependence
does sometimes appear to have been contributed by family problems of some sort
Blum et al (1979). The suggested link between drug misuse and parental
separation or other family disruptions becomes far less clear-cut when drug
takers are compared with other people. There is no clear evidence that drug
takers do differ in this respect from non-drug takers. In addition, surveys
provided evidence that t all the majority of casual or experimental drug users
certainly do not originate from disturbed home ,Charles et al (
1994).Environmental approaches relate rates of drug taking to wider social or
cultural factors, Moon et al, (1999) . Many studies have examined the life
experiences of drug takers, emphasizing on issues such as broken homes,
delinquency, educational or occupational disadvantages. It has also been
suggested that social changes or deprivation sometimes precipitate or foster
certain types of drug use.
Educational and occupational problems
(There is abundant and
convincing evidence that) many
institutionalized young drug takers exhibit sign of educational disturbance,
particularly truancy. In addition many are, 'drop out' of further or higher
education or had very poor employment records and considerable experience of
unemployment. It is apparent that some drug takers have experienced educational
difficulties before their involvement with drugs. Some drug dependent people
certainly experience both educational and work difficulties either because of
their excessive drug use or possibly as yet another symptom of a more general
malaise.
Social Class.
Drug
taking and drug dependence occur at all social levels. Drug dependants in
general, including those dependents upon either alcohol or opiates are drawn
from all social classes. They are common and cut across the socio-economic
strata of the society. Most of the users in the north east are found to be in
the upper middle stratas of society . Users also are found to hide their
consumption as they are often look down or frown upon by the society.
Availability
Most
social groups use whatever substances they have ready access to. The extent of
alcohol and tobacco use had widely been attributed to their high levels of
availability combined with a fall in their cost in relation to the average
consumer's purchasing capacity. The dramatic upsurge of illegal drug use during
the nineties has been attributed in large measures to the easy flow from the
neighbouring country and also some of the synthetic or pharmacological drugs
found easily available in the drug stores ,where one can buy without
prescription. In addition the upsurge in youthful heroin use was clearly
exacerbated by over-casual prescribing so that 'spare' supplies could be passed
onto others eager to experiment. Studies of various groups of drug takers show
that whatever their previous characteristics and inclinations, the availability
of drugs in conducive surroundings was an important reason for initial use.In
Britain, the National Health Service is a major source of drugs(Martin,1981).
Prescribed drugs have accidentally become 'therapeutically dependent' upon opiates,
barbiturates, tranquillisers and other substances. It is evident that the drugs
which are considered to be relatively safe such as Librium and Valium , will be
misused for example to overdose , provided they are available in sufficient quantities.
Contact with drug takers and the opportunity, if so motivated , to use drugs
appear to be commonplace conditions for use. Availability is important and appears
to influence patterns of drug use in a given area at a given time. Many youthful
drug takers ,particularly those in treatment institutions, appear to be willing
to use whatever substances are available. Not all individuals are so catholic
in their drug tastes. Even so it has often been noted that when , for any
reasons, large amounts of any drug are available at a reasonable price from
whatever source, their use and misuse will invariably increase. Availability does
not explain why only some people use drugs or experience drug related harm and may
sometimes drastically reduce their misuse. Such restriction will, of course,
work if the demand for such drugs is comparatively low and if effective
unofficial or illegal alternative sources of supply exists. The classic western
example of an attempt to control the availability of a drug was alcohol
prohibition in the United States, 1920-33.During this period while
conventional' alcohol related problem, such as liver cirrhosis declined
enormously, others emerged in the form of bootlegging and gangsters. Even in
Britain today it is clear that prescribing a wide range of drug use requires
considerable police, court and penal resources. In addition restricting the
legitimate supply of any drug creates the risk that illicit supplies may be
sought instead. These may be poorly manufactured, adulterated or impure. In
addition imposing harsh penalties to restrict the use of certain drugs may
cause more harm that the drugs themselves would otherwise do. As in the
northeast the ban on alcohol use by the Government during the early 90's in the
State of Manipur , Nagaland and Mizoram has given rise to the increase in the
use of heroin and the synthetic drugs among the youths( Pal et al , 1990; Poshyachinda,
1993.Sarkar et al ,1993;Eicher, 1996; [1]Images
Asia ,1998). Major international drug treaties control a wide variety of
natural drugs and substance. For more than 75 years ,the Governments of World
have acted to limit the drugs available in their countries The basic criteria
for determining whether a substance should be placed on the control roster are
simple, if the drug is capable of producing a state of dependence and the abuse
of drug could lead to social and public health problems that substance warrants
international control.
The
Northeast India
Northeast
India comprises the seven political units, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur,
Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura covering an area of about 255080 sq.km. It is
located between latitude 20degree North and Longitude 89.46 and 97.5 degree E.
Recently the state of Sikkim has also been added as one of the NE states making
it now to be eight. Northeast India maybe regarded as forming one geoethnic
unit taking into consideration geographical location, ethnic composition,
historical background, cultural heritage and the like. From the ethnic point of
view the people of this region may broadly be divided into two major groups,
namely Caucasoid and Muslims formed by the caste and the Mongoloids which
mostly include the tribes, Das (1985).
The heterogeneous nature of the Northeast
The
northeast region is in fact not homogenous ,unfortunately it is frequently
regarded as one by policy makers since the beginning of India's Independence.
To quote the remarks of NEN a civil society,(Northeast Network),working in the
northeast region might seem the most appropriate, "How easy or difficult
has it been to set up a network in this fiercely independent region? Being from
the region itself, we were perfectly aware that it is an error to club the
entire region together as one homogenous whole. The reasons why the whole
region broke up into so many different state with demand for more is because
there are great differences between the various communities constituting the
region. We respect these differences but at the same time also realize that for
real work to take place we have to sink our difference and come together, at
least on issues crucial to all of us. On this we have always received
tremendous support from all our partners and well-wishers'', NEN (1998).
Geographical position of the Northeast
In
its very location , northeast India presents itself as a distinct entity
tenuosly linked to the rest of the country by narrow corridor running 56 km
through the foothills of Bhutan and Sikkim to the State of West Bengal.
Mountain ranges ,hills and rivers determine its boundaries, shared with China
in the north, Myanmar in the east and Bangladesh in the west. As the region
abruptly descends to the plains of the mainland , cultural ,social and economic
contrast is strongly evident. The tremendous geographical diversity of India is
brought into sharp focus in its northeast extremity. The mainland had over 300
km to graduate from the Himalaya in the north to the Indian Ocean in the South.
In the Northeast , the progression from the Himalaya to the Bay of Bengal is
accomplished over a distance of less than 700km, forcing in its wake rapid and
complex transformation. Correspondingly its people, 26% of whom belong to a
multitude of tribes , present a bewildering array of history settlement ,custom
and practice , many existing in pockets of virtual seclusion. The Political boundaries
of the states are closely associated with various route of migration e.g the
northern passes of Bhutan, Tibet and Assam-Burma routes on the eastern side at
different intervals of time. In course of time they became distributed in
different regions assuming different names. The tribes are now living under
varied geographical regions, environments with high mountains in the extreme
north hills of varying attitudes and plateau all over the region, slopes of
hills and river valleys. Ethnic environment also varies from region to region
.In some parts each tribe has kept itself isolated from other populations,
while in others one has come in contact with other tribes as well as castes.
The ancestral form of certain batches of tribe, each of which is under
different ecological condition and at different socio-cultural level , can be
identified on careful scrutiny of the relevant information .In some cases,
though the ancestral type is not distinct , certain tribe may be affiliated to
one group distinguishable from others. Numerically certain tribe are small in
size and are confined to particular localities , while some are very large and
are distributed over different parts of the region forming subgroups of the same
tribe. Thus , the situation of the Northeast India is such that it provide
unique opportunity and potentiality for formulating appropriate research
designs for various types of anthropological studies including population variations
at macro as well as micro levels, Das(1985).
Dimension of the
Narcotic drug abuse in the Northeast
The
problem of Narcotic drug use and abuse in the NE states of India is pervasive.
Stated simply the problem in this region is extremely complex and is almost a
constantly changing phenomenon. The more we learn about the problem, the more
cognizant we are of the impact drug abuse has on individual lives, on the
functioning of families and communities and on the health and well -being of
the entire society. In fact it is widely thought that the level of use and
abuse of drugs in the NE are comparatively higher than those found in other
parts of the country. It is dangerous to be complacent and presume that what
has taken place in the NE states will not take place in other parts of the
country. Drugs once they gain a foothold, become a tenacious enemy to conquer.
The drug abuse problem is also exceedingly diverse. Drug abuses vary from
community and within communities. While there are some differences in the
degree to which drugs are abused by sex, ethnic groups, social class and other
personal and psychological characteristic, no segment of the population is
immune to the problem. Further the drug abuse problem spreads and changes with
remarkable speed
There is sufficient evidence to prove that
India had become the center of activities of the international gangs of drug
traffickers, who are using the country for transit purposes, Cooper (1993).
India as a matter of fact is sandwiched between the Golden triangle and the
Golden crescent hence it is in a very strategic and vulnerable position,(
Freemantle1985 ; Ghosh,1987 ;Cooper1993 ;Poshyachinda 1993 ; Kumar et ,al
1996). Heroin traders respect no international boundaries. They find it easier
to prey on communities and are concerned with their own personal interest. In
the Himalayan region poppy cultivation remains unchecked. Wherever illicit
cultivation, production and trafficking occurs, abuse by the local population
almost inevitably ensues .It is therefore an imperative need to plug all the
inlets and outlets of smuggling to check the use of India as a transit center
and also to prevent drug addictions among the population.
Drug
and HIV/AIDS
Drug
use and the incidence of the HIV/AIDS has reached an alarming proportion in the
North east India. It is the two sides of the same coin. The high number of IVDU
have been reported to be infected with the dreaded HIV. Poshyachinda, 1993 ,
reported on the use of drugs and the high incidence of HIV/AIDS in the
Northeast especially in Manipur . Sarkar et al ( 1995) gave a cross sectional
studies on the HIV/IDU in Manipur. Sarkar et al (1996) reported that the influence
of the national highway was closely related to the and spread of drug use and incidence
of HIV/AIDS in the rural Manipur. Sarkar et el (1991) and Eicher (1996) has
reported on the intravenous injecting habits of the DU in Lamka, Manipur, as an
intimate behavior pattern existing among those who share the needles. The
proximity of the Golden triangle and the availability of the drugs have been
reported by Pal et al, 1990;Poshyachinda, 1993;OXFAM, NACO, WHO& SHARAN
,1995; Economist ,1995; Images Asia ,1998;
Among
the hill districts, Churachandpur ranked highest in the percentage of IDU's
(Intravenous drug users) and cases of HIV infections. The IDU's on the district
are between the age groups 15-30 years of which many have been reported HIV
sero positive. Churachandpur district ( pop. 176 184 . 1991 census) in southern
Manipur is thought to have 3000 IDU .Churachandpur town the district
headquarters ,possibly had as many as 800 IDUs among 33,657(1991) inhabitants
(IHU 1994).A town survey conducted in 1995 found 560 past or current IDUs among
1213 identified drug user (SHALOM) unpublished survey,(1995) .More important
than the amount of drug injected is the frequency with which users share their
equipment. There is clearly a significant amount of injecting drug use in
Churachandpur. Further HIV has already made its presence felt locally. Of the
1124 people officially tested in Churachndpur district till late 1994, 31% were
HIV positive. Since most of HIV testing to date has targeted ' high risk '
groups it is clear that a significant portion of local IDUs are already infected
with HIV and more people including new cohorts of IDUs and non-users will
probably contract the diseases in the future. The community faces a set of
inter related epidemics with drug use, HIV infections fast becoming evident
clinical AIDS. It is obvious that drug use causes ill effects not only by its
administration alone in the body but also due to its mode of administration and
the latest is the HIV/AIDS which has spread due to the IDU. This has caused an
almost catastrophic situation in NE and requires immediate attention .Elwin,
(1957) in the early fifties has recorded a very rich account of the opium
habits of the tribes in NEFA. He gave his views that unless the habit of opium
is curtailed it would be difficult to bring about any development .Ghonglah,
(1996) , gave the reason for the youthful drug use and the craze for the west,
this has led the youth in the North east to become victims of drug use due to
the blind imitation of the west. Serto ( 1993), gave an account of the growth pattern
being affected by drug use in Manipur. The study revealed the differences
between the drug users and non drug users in the male population of Manipur. The
NDU showed significantly higher values for all the anthropometric variables
with the exception of pulse rate thereby indicating the high anxiety level
among drug users. The diet taken and preferred by the Drug users was rich in
carbohydrates and probably accounts for subcuteanous fat deposition similar to
NDU. There was less of physical activity and that may account for the muscular degeneration
and general lethargy among them.. Drug Abuse Summaries (1992), a document in a
series of studies on the use of various kinds of drugs is an elaborate research
work conducted all over India. In the North east , it was reported that the
common drugs used were Ganja and Heroin. The document was compiled and
researched by the Ministry of Welfare & National Institute of Social
Defense. The effects of drug use and the various types are given in details in
the UN report (1989) and the Alcohol and drug dependency (1989), a document published
by the Ministry of Welfare. Govt of India. Hamburg et al., 1975;Kandel ,1978;
gave a detail on the hierarchy of drug uses in adolescence, experimentation with
one substance frequently leads to experimentation with other psychoactive
substance. The sequence of experimentation and subsequent regular use of
psychoactive substances observed in most individual suggest what has been
referred to as a substance of hierarchy. It may be noted that most individuals begin
using tobacco and alcohol , progressing late to the use of marijuana. Some
individual may eventually progress to the use of depressants , stimulants and
psychedelics. Typically the use of opiate and cocaine appears towards the end
of this progression. For this reason, the use of tobacco and alcohol is viewed
by many experts as gateway behavior for all too many individual who go on to
use other drugs such as Opiate and cocaine. Elkind (1978) reported on the
behaviour pattern of the adolescents egocentrism, He concluded that the
adolescence tends to have a heightened sense of self consciousness concerning
their appearance , personal qualities and abilities. Piaget (1962) has observed
on the preadolescents and adolescent way of thinking. The preadolescence
thinking is grounded in the ' here and now' , adolescent thought on the other
hand is more relative , abstract and hypothetical .In general terms, new
hypothetical -deductive modes of thinking enable adolescents to conceive of a
wide range of possibilities and logical alternatives to accept deviation from
established rules and to recognize the frequently irrational and inconsistent
natures of adult behaviour. Chen et al,(1995) ,reported on the use of drugs in
adolescence and early adulthood in their longitudinal studies. Adolescents and
young adults are most vulnerable to new experiences, new ideas and new fads.
For many youths the use of drugs may represent a way of participating in the
youth culture, while for a subgroup drug use may represent a form of self
medication. Moon et al .1999, reported that males were more at risk for offer
for use of drugs at a younger age. Ellickson et al, 1999; reported on the adolescent's
problem behavior especially problems due to use of gateway drugs. These
problems subsequently leads to use of hard drugs. Adityanjee et al,( 1984 ), found
that heroin abuse which was conspicuous by its absence in all Indian
epidemiological surveys of substance abuse carried out prior to 1980 made a
dramatic and sudden appearance in the metropolitan cities of India. Saxena, et
al, 1984, found that there was a rapid increase of heroin dependence in Delhi.
As many of them registered for treatement. Also it was found that most of the
Asian hospitals were in such a situation where inadequate psychiatric and
general health services were suddenly confronted with a mass of heroin addicts
(Mohan et al, 1985). Merchant et al, 1991, reported on the Narcotics and its
indepth study giving the history of trade and pharmacuetical effects. Details
of the different methods of treatment were also given. Sarkar, et al 1991, from
their research in Nagaland concluded their findings that the age of the DU
ranged between 12 and 45 years .The majority (95.3%) were between the 15 to 35
years . The findings also confirmed that the geographical distribution of the
IVDUs in this series had been found to correlate mainly with the availability
of the drug along the national highway coinciding with existing knowledge. As
this led to the conclusion that the state like Mizoram and Nagaland who shares
the same National highway and border with Myanmar are likely to be affected as
much as Manipur. Kumar et al (1996) gave the profile of Heroin drug users in
Nagaland It was found that peer pressure and friends were one of the main
reasons for being initially introduced to drugs .Charles et al
,1994,collectively presented their findings on the culture, drug abuse and some
reflections on the family. Mehta, 1994, on his studies among Dang tribals of
Gujarat found that they use to brew their own liquor made of either rice, mahua
flowers or some other nutrients. Several macro changes have made an impact on
the life of tribals leading to alcoholism on wide scale .Industrialization,
commercialization, westernization ,monetizations and concomitant government
policies have brought change among the tribal .In India ,the tribals constitute
about 9 percent of the population .Similarly in Australia, Canada and other
countries , aboriginal form a segment of the population that had been adversely
affected by major social changes leading to alienation, hopelessness and
alcoholism. Ganguly et al ,(1995), gave an ethnographic account of opium consumers
of Rajasthan .The study suggested that opium is in many ways integrated into
the socio-cultural fabric of the local community. Self-medication with opium
mitigates various health problems and the drug is also used to relieve mental
distress. Mattoo et al .(1997), reported that the CCS(codeine containing cough
syrups) use was increasing among the young people in North India .The
combination of opoid and a sympathomimetic agent in the CCS may cause a special
,distinct euphoric effect. This effect , along with the low price ,easy
availability and pure preparation may be the reason for its rapidly rising
popularity as drug of abuse.According to Sharma,( 1996), India has a history of
use of plant products viz, cannabis, opium and home-brewed alcoholic beverages
within a defined sociological framework of over five millenium. Cross sectional
epidemiological studies in the field of substance use in different parts of
India show that certain groups are more 'vulnerable' to substance use. Caste
religion and local customs and traditions play a significant role in the choice
of drugs, their consumption and their control in rural/semi urban populations.
The intercultural barriers are diminishing in urban populations and even alien
drugs like heroin have been introduced. Siddiqui, (1994), reported on the drug
abuse in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Orissa. He found that most of the
addicts have not been able to internalized most of the cultural values that are
universally found in all religious and caste groups in India. According to
Charles, et al,( 1994), on the marginalization and drug abuse in Bombay, focussed
on 'brown sugar' a crude form of heroin. It was reported that Brown sugar does
not have any cultural niche of itself , its continued presence is linked to urbanization,
persistence of traditional drugs in modernity, criminalization of the drug,
economies of trade in the commodity, inclusion of traditional drugs under the
ambit of the Narcotics and Psychotropic Substance Act (1985). It was observed
that the physical features of the drug and pharmacological properties ,desired for
altered state of consciousness and various psychological and social factors sustain
the use of brown sugar. Martins,1987; Singh,1990; gave a report of the drug scenario
in Goa, relating with the issue of tourism. .Britto, 1986; Shrivastava,1989
;Masihi 1994; gave the historical account of Opium use in India, Opium
consumption had several centuries of history in India. In Kashmir and Haryana
,it is smoked in groups, it is eaten in Punjab where smoking is a religious
taboo. It is drunk in the desert region of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Administering
of opium to children to put them to sleep while the mothers work , during the
teething period and on occasions as medicine is reported. Masihi (1994
)compiled data from secondary sources and through a reviews of relevant local
literature on opium consumption in the Saurasthra region of Gujarat in Western
India . Opium forms part of the lifestyle of various segment of Saurasthra
society .In the local language opium is called 'Amal" which in other words
means rule or control. Sarkar et al, (1993), reported on the rapid spread of
HIV among injecting drug users in the North east India. The use of intravenous
needle among the drug users gives new risk for the HIV transmission in the
North east. Blum et al ,1979, gave evidence that a number of factors may
promote or facilitate the initiation of substance use. Individuals from
families in which one or more members generally parents or older siblings ,
smoke drink or use drugs are more likely to become substance users themselves ,
as are individuals , whose friends are substance users. Hawkins et al , (1985) gave
an account of the social networks of street drug users.. Brooks ,(1994),
highlighted the methods on the use of ethnographic methodology among drug
users. Carlson, ( 1996), gave an attempt to bring an understanding of the AIDS
pandemic and reducing the transmission of HIV (human immuno deficiency virus)
specifically among injection users and crack-cocaine users in the United State.
Waterston ( 1993) , based on 98 ethnographer interviews with 55 injection drug
users in New York city, showed that addicts not only serve as a source of cheap
labor whose costs of daily reproduction are born by the drug injectors
themselves, but also form a market for goods produced by the enormous
international drug trade. Furthermore, she suggests that because and addicts
time is dominated by purchasing and selling drugs, getting high, going to jail,
and seeking drug treatment, the underlying class relations and gender
inequalities are obscured. Singer (1994), concluded that mind altering drug use
is explained as a means to escape these negative conditions and to compensate
for frustrated expectations for a better life, the negative conditions
constituted of high unemployment , poverty, homelessness, inadequate nutrition
, environment toxins and substandard housing. Geopolitical Drug Watch (1999); provided
an elaborate and update of the drug problem in the world and relating it to
Peace during the Hague appeal for peace conference ,11-15th may 1999,
cautioning against the use of child soldier who were provided drug and made to
participate in combats in the African conflict situations.
Political Instability:
There is not one state in the northeast that can claim political stability. In recent year's traditional community cohesiveness and the ability of rural people to determine their own course has been undermined. Yet state intervention has not been beneficial. State functioning and the bureaucracy are not only politicized across party lines but also steeped in corruption. The problems of the rural population are further complicated by geographical isolation, deficiencies in the infrastructure and the lack of economic growth. This situation had further weakened community structures and even rural work patterns. Political instability and the increase in armed activities, both by insurgent groups and the armed forces, have further disrupted the already static economy, generated fear amongst local population and hastened disintegration of social norms.
Reasons for drug problems in the north east
Three reasons for the drug problem in the region are due to:
· Ignorance ,
· Availability, proximity to the Golden triangle and
·
Ethnic composition of the region along
with the craze for the west.
Availability & proximity to the Golden traingle:
Because
of the location of the seven sisters. the easternmost parts of atleast three
states (Mizoram, Nagaland and Mizoram) touch the westernmost part of Burma
through a long border. This make an easy route for the drugs traffickers. The
border is not easily identified not to speak of being sealed, as it is full of
terrain and deep jungles. Burma is straddling right in the midst of the
so-called Golden Triangle, an area famous for its production and export of
illegal drugs. There are also parts of the region bordering China and
Bangladesh though the narcotics trail in these routes is not there up till now.
The point to stress here is the vulnerability of this region, having a long
border with three foreign countries
There is sufficient evidence (Cooper, 1993) to prove that India had
become the center of activities of the international gangs of drug traffickers,
who are using the country for transit purposes. India as a matter of fact is
sandwiched between the Golden triangle and the Golden crescent hence it is in a
very strategic and vulnerable position ,Freemantle 1985;Ghosh S.K 1987;Cooper
1993;Poshyachinda.1993; Kumar. S, et ,al 1996. In the Himalayan region poppy
cultivation remains unchecked. Wherever illicit cultivation, production and
trafficking occurs, abuse by the local population almost inevitably ensues.
AIDS and the
drug user.
An added
risk connected with drug abuse has recently received much public attention; the
danger of the intravenous drug user falling victim to the disease AIDS(
Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome).The infectious agent is a virus that
directly attacks a group of white blood cells, which play a central role in the
proper functioning of the body’s immune system. As the disease progresses,
these defensive cells are almost entirely destroyed. The immune system collapses
and the individual falls prey to one infection after another. Many patients develop
rare types of cancer and suffer brain damage Since no cure has yet been
discovered, death appears to the inevitable, Sarkar and Das(1993). In case of
intravenous drug abusers, the AIDS virus is transmitted through the sharing of
contaminated needle. It is estimated that 70 to 80 per cent of AIDS patients in
the Northeast are among the IDU (intravenous drug abusers).
Ethnic
composition of the region, craze for the west.
Compared to the rest of the country, they
are considered to be simple, straightforward, economically backward and have a
strong community living. Added to this, the tremendous pressures they have to
go through the last 20 years of insurgency may be the major reasons for the
sudden spurt of addiction problem among the younger generation in these states.
Perhaps to go into these factors another in-depth study needs to be undertaken.
But it is not difficult to grasp if we really keep an open mind. For example,
why the problem is more acute in Aizawl and Kohima than in Shillong? Regular
newspapers have highlighted with captions on the Northeast narcotics scenario
since the last two years. Some of them run like this, ‘Champhai smuggler
paradise’, ‘Heroin worth Rs. 75000 seized’, ‘Foreign hand in drug supply to
Northeast alleged’, “Drug addicts kill teenager’’ etc. The interesting fact observed
here is the ‘speed’ with which the northeast youth catch up with the latest
‘Western’ craze inspire of the so called backwardness in many other things.
Worse of all, the blind imitation of the west. This has led to decay of culture
and moral poverty making the youths more susceptible and psychically available
for the drugs. It has also led to animosity among tribes with the segregation
of political and religious leaderships, each trying to assert their supremacy
over one another.
Ethnic
conflicts in the recent years have also claimed number of lives , the most
affected are the women and children. Insurgency is endemic in the region and
for the past more than 20 years, violence is part of the culture that governs
everyday life Unemployment is rampant and the breakdown of the traditional
values are evident in the region. Singer, (1994) in synthesizing account of
injection drug use and AIDS in the United states coins the term “syndemic”, to
capture the confluence of several interrelated political economic conditions
associated with high rates of HIV infection among urban minorities. Among these
are ;high unemployment, poverty and homelessness; inadequate nutrition and
environment toxins; substandard housing; the dissolution of families and
support networks; violence. It seems that mind altering drug is a mean to
escape these negative conditions and to compensate for frustrated expectations
for a better life. The most saddening part is the fact that the youths are
falling fast for this menace especially in the formative stages. Adolescence,
the passage between childhood and adulthood is a time of dramatic physical
,cognitive and social change. They are usually identified by fast growth
significant shape change, sexual maturation and are full of vigor and energy.
Any health or psychological problem at this stage would be felt acutely as they
are the future of a happy family, better community, developed society and a
strong nation.
The easy availability of drugs from the Golden triangle is also one of
the most important underlying factor for the drug epidemic. The effect of drugs
abuse is seen initially in ruined lives , family disruption , poor work
performance, health hazards ,crime, increase drug related accidents.
On the issue of prevention the States must establish comprehensive programs to confront the drug problem in all aspect. Communities , families and local leaders must make a commitment ,play an important role in the prevention of drug abuse. Without their support no Government or Organizations can be successful in this fight against drug abuse and drug trafficking.
The
situation in the north east has become a catastrophe, as to the situation of
drug use among youths are concern. It becomes imperative that professional help
is immediately sought for treatment, counseling and prevention of drug abuse .
Much to the prevailing situation in all spheres of life, what is needed
immediately is to create awareness among the communities to empower them with
the knowledge to help themselves , with the rapid speed of cultural changes
taking its toll ,perhaps the old traditional methods are not sufficient, this
is perhaps why newer method and approaches to the solution of the present problems
are essential .
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****
Contact:
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Leban Serto
E-mail: [email protected]