THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CONSUMERS

THE
PSYCHOLOGY
OF CONSUMERS
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND MARKETING

Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategy

The study of consumers helps firms and organizations improve their marketing strategies by understanding issues such as how

The psychology of how consumers think, feel, reason, and select between different alternatives (e.g., brands, products);
The the psychology of how the consumer is influenced by his or her environment (e.g., culture, family, signs, media);
The behavior of consumers while shopping or making other marketing decisions;
Limitations in consumer knowledge or information processing abilities influence decisions and marketing outcome;
How consumer motivation and decision strategies differ between products that differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer; and
How marketers can adapt and improve their marketing campaigns and marketing strategies to more effectively reach the consumer.

Understanding these issues helps us adapt our strategies by taking the consumer into consideration. For example, by understanding that a number of different messages compete for our potential customers’ attention, we learn that to be effective, advertisements must usually be repeated extensively. We also learn that consumers will sometimes be persuaded more by logical arguments, but at other times will be persuaded more by emotional or symbolic appeals. By understanding the consumer, we will be able to make a more informed decision as to which strategy to employ.

Lars Perner's marketing and consumer behavior teaching materials

The "official" definition of consumer behavior given in the text is "The study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society. (p. 7)." Although it is not necessary to memorize this definition, it brings up some useful points:

Behavior occurs either for the individual, or in the context of a group (e.g., friends influence what kinds of clothes a person wears) or an organization (people on the job make decisions as to which products the firm should use).
Consumer behavior involves the use and disposal of products as well as the study of how they are purchased. Product use is often of great interest to the marketer, because this may influence how a product is best positioned or how we can encourage increased consumption. Since many environmental problems result from product disposal (e.g., motor oil being sent into sewage systems to save the recycling fee, or garbage piling up at landfills) this is also an area of interest.
Consumer behavior involves services and ideas as well as tangible products.

The impact of consumer behavior on society is also of relevance. For example, aggressive marketing of high fat foods, or aggressive marketing of easy credit, may have serious repercussions for the national health and economy.

There are four main applications of consumer behavior:

The most obvious is for marketing strategy—i.e., for making better marketing campaigns. For example, by understanding that consumers are more receptive to food advertising when they are hungry, we learn to schedule snack advertisements late in the afternoon. By understanding that new products are usually initially adopted by a few consumers and only spread later, and then only gradually, to the rest of the population, we learn that (1) companies that introduce new products must be well financed so that they can stay afloat until their products become a commercial success and (2) it is important to please initial customers, since they will in turn influence many subsequent customers’ brand choices.
A second application is public policy. In the 1980s, Accutane, a near miracle cure for acne, was introduced. Unfortunately, Accutane resulted in severe birth defects if taken by pregnant women. Although physicians were instructed to warn their female patients of this, a number still became pregnant while taking the drug. To get consumers’ attention, the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) took the step of requiring that very graphic pictures of deformed babies be shown on the medicine containers.

Social marketing involves getting ideas across to consumers rather than selling something. Marty Fishbein, a marketing professor, went on sabbatical to work for the Centers for Disease Control trying to reduce the incidence of transmission of diseases through illegal drug use. The best solution, obviously, would be if we could get illegal drug users to stop. This, however, was deemed to be infeasible. It was also determined that the practice of sharing needles was too ingrained in the drug culture to be stopped. As a result, using knowledge of consumer attitudes, Dr. Fishbein created a campaign that encouraged the cleaning of needles in bleach before sharing them, a goal that was believed to be more realistic.
As a final benefit, studying consumer behavior should make us better consumers. Common sense suggests, for example, that if you buy a 64 liquid ounce bottle of laundry detergent, you should pay less per ounce than if you bought two 32 ounce bottles. In practice, however, you often pay a size premium by buying the larger quantity. In other words, in this case, knowing this fact will sensitize you to the need to check the unit cost labels to determine if you are really getting a bargain.

There are several units in the market that can be analyzed. Our main thrust in this course is the consumer. However, we will also need to analyze our own firm’s strengths and weaknesses and those of competing firms. Suppose, for example, that we make a product aimed at older consumers, a growing segment. A competing firm that targets babies, a shrinking market, is likely to consider repositioning toward our market. To assess a competing firm’s potential threat, we need to examine its assets (e.g., technology, patents, market knowledge, awareness of its brands) against pressures it faces from the market. Finally, we need to assess conditions (the marketing environment). For example, although we may have developed a product that offers great appeal for consumers, a recession may cut demand dramatically.

________________________________________

OTHER SITES OPERATED

_________________________________________

Research Methods

There are two main categories of research methods. Secondary research uses research that has already been done by someone else. For example, marketers often find information compiled by the U.S. Census very useful. However, in some cases, information specific enough to satisfy a firm’s needs is not publicly available. For example, a firm will have to run its own research to find out whether consumers would prefer that more vanilla taste be added to its soft drink brand. Original research that a firm does for itself is known as primary research.

There is no one perfect primary research method. Each has strengths and weaknesses, and thus the appropriate method must be selected based on research needs.

Surveys are useful for getting a great deal of specific information. Surveys can contain open-ended questions (e.g., "In which city and state were you born? ____________") or closed-ended, where the respondent is asked to select answers from a brief list (e.g., "__Male ___ Female." Open ended questions have the advantage that the respondent is not limited to the options listed, and that the respondent is not being influenced by seeing a list of responses. However, open-ended questions are often skipped by respondents, and coding them can be quite a challenge. In general, for surveys to yield meaningful responses, sample sizes of over 100 are usually required because precision is essential. For example, if a market share of twenty percent would result in a loss while thirty percent would be profitable, a confidence interval of 20-35% is too wide to be useful.

Surveys come in several different forms. Mail surveys are relatively inexpensive, but response rates are typically quite low—typically from 5-20%. Phone-surveys get somewhat higher response rates, but not many questions can be asked because many answer options have to be repeated and few people are willing to stay on the phone for more than five minutes. Mall intercepts are a convenient way to reach consumers, but respondents may be reluctant to discuss anything sensitive face-to-face with an interviewer.

Surveys, as any kind of research, is vulnerable to bias. The wording of a question can influence the outcome a great deal. For example, more people answered no to the question "Should speeches against democracy be allowed?" than answered yes to "Should speeches against democracy be forbidden?" For face-to-face interviews, interviewer bias is a danger, too. Interviewer bias occurs when the interviewer influences the way the respondent answers. For example, unconsciously an interviewer that works for the firm manufacturing the product in question may smile a little when something good is being said about the product and frown a little when something negative is being said. The respondent may catch on and say something more positive than his or her real opinion. Finally, a response bias may occur—if only part of the sample responds to a survey, the respondents’ answers may not be representative of the population.

The case of "The Pentagon Declares War on Rush Limbaugh" illustrated that biased surveys are often taken at face value. It was reported in the national media, without question of the validity of the research, that only 3.8% of listeners to the Armed Forces Network wanted to listen to Rush Limbaugh. It turned out, however, that this inference was based on the question "What single thing can we do to improve programming?" Only if a respondent wrote in an answer mentioning Rush Limbaugh were he or she counted as wanting to listen to Rush.

Experiments are used when the researcher wants to rule out all but one explanation for a particular observation. Suppose, for example, that we observe that sales of our brand increase when we send out coupons. However, retailers may also give us better shelf space when the coupon is out; thus, we can’t tell if it was the coupon or the shelf-placement that caused sales to increase—the two variables are confounded. In an experiment, we carefully control what varies. In this case, we invite in one hundred people and ask them to shop in a simulated store. Half of the respondents are randomly selected and get a coupon; the others do not. Since the only difference here was whether the subjects got a coupon or not, we can be more confident that differences in brand choice were due to the coupon. Experiments do, however, have a serious drawback in that the consumer is removed from his or her natural surroundings. For example, if we pay some consumers to come into a lab and watch TV "as you normally would," these consumers, figuring that they are being paid, may give more attention to the advertisements than they would at home.

Focus groups involve getting a group of 6-12 consumers together to discuss product usage. Focus groups are especially useful if we do not have specific questions to ask yet, since we don’t know what consumers’ concerns might be. We start out talking broadly about the need that a product might serve, and only gradually move toward the product itself. For example, a firm considering the marketing of sugarfree cookies might start out its group talking about snacks—why people consume them and the benefits they expect. Gradually, we then move toward concerns people have about snacks. Eventually, we address sugar content and concerns that consumers have about that. Only toward the end of the session do we show consumers the actual product we are considering and ask for feedback. We postpone our consideration of the actual product toward the end because we want to be sure that we find out about the consumer’s needs and desires rather than what he or she thinks about the specific product we have on the drawing board right now (that product can be changed, and it can be repositioned). Drawbacks of focus groups include high costs and the fact that generalization toward the entire population is difficult for such small sample sizes. The fact that focus groups involve social interaction also means that participants may say what they think will make themselves look good rather than what they really believe (the social desirability bias).

Personal interviews involve in-depth questioning of an individual about his or her interest in or experiences with a product. The benefit here is that we can get really into depth (when the respondent says something interesting, we can ask him or her to elaborate), but this method of research is costly and can be extremely vulnerable to interviewer bias.

Projective techniques are used when a consumer may feel embarrassed to admit to certain opinions, feelings, or preferences. For example, many older executives may not be comfortable admitting to being intimidated by computers. It has been found that in such cases, people will tend to respond more openly about "someone else." Thus, we may ask them to explain reasons why a friend has not yet bought a computer, or to tell a story about a person in a picture who is or is not using a product. The main problem with this method is that it is difficult to analyze responses.

Observation of consumers is often a powerful tool. Looking at how consumers select products may yield insights into how they make decisions and what they look for. For example, some American manufacturers were concerned about low sales of their products in Japan. Observing Japanese consumers, it was found that many of these Japanese consumers scrutinized packages looking for a name of a major manufacturer—the product specific-brands that are common in the U.S. (e.g., Tide) were not impressive to the Japanese, who wanted a name of a major firm like Mitsubishi or Proctor & Gamble. Observation may help us determine how much time consumers spend comparing prices, or whether nutritional labels are being consulted.

Physiological measures are occasionally used to examine consumer response. For example, advertisers may want to measure a consumer’s level of arousal during various parts of an advertisement.

Segmentation

Although the text makes references to segmentation, this issue is not discussed explicitly in much detail. However, segmentation is important in consumer analysis because understanding the consumer will allow us segment the market more meaningfully.

Segmentation basically involves dividing consumers into groups such that members of a group (1) are as similar as possible to members of that same group but (2) differ as much as possible from members other segments. This enables us then to "treat" each segment differently—e.g., by:

Providing different products (e.g., some consumers like cola taste, while others prefer lime)
Offering different prices (some consumers will take the cheapest product available, while others will pay for desired features)
Distributing the products where they are likely to be bought by the targeted segment.

In order for a segment structure to be useful:

Each segment must have an identity—i.e., it must contain members that can be described in some way (e.g., price sensitive) that behave differently from another segment.
Each segment must engage in systematic behaviors (e.g., a price sensitive segment should consistently prefer the low price item rather than randomly switching between high and low priced brands).
Each segment must offer marketing mix efficiency potential—i.e., it must be profitable to serve. For example, a large segment may be profitable even though the competition it attracts tends to keep prices down. A smaller segment may be profitable if, for example, it is price insensitive or can be targeted efficiently (e.g., if its members consistently subscribe to one magazine where all the company’s advertising can be put). Some segments are not cost effective. For example, a small group of consumers would love to have a no-sports news channel (similar to CNN), but we are just too small a group to profitable.

There are three "levels" of segmentation. Levels here refer to the tradeoff between the difficulty of implementing a segmentation scheme and the benefits that result.

The first level of segmentation involves personal characteristics—e.g., demographics. This is a fairly easy method of segmentation to employ because (1) we have a good idea of who is in each segment and (2) we can easily target these segments. For example, if we want to reach males ages fifteen through thirty-five, we can find out which TV shows they watch from firms such as Nielsen (similar services exist for newspapers and magazines). The trouble with this method of segmentation, however, is that there is often not a good correlation between personal characteristics of consumers and what they want to buy. Perhaps males may want more flavor, and be willing to settle for more calories, in a soft drink than women do, but there is a great deal of within group variation. Interestingly, it has been found that people who live in the same area, as operationalized by their zip-codes, tend to share a many consumption relevant characteristics. Firms such as Claritas will sell profiles of zip-code based communities that can be used in aiming messages at particularly receptive residents. For example, the U.S. Army aggressively targets communities dubbed "Guns and Pickups."

Psychographics includes a bit more information about the consumer than his or her mere descriptive characteristics. For example, two men could both be plumbers, aged 45, married with two children, and have annual incomes of $45,000. However, one could be couch potato who comes home and eats fast food while watching television. The other could be a health enthusiast who spends his time exercising. Several firms have tried to come up with psychographic profiles of consumers. One is the VALS project from the Stanford Research Institute (SRI). Since most of these programs are proprietary, there is not a lot of published research on their usefulness. However, some firms are paying a great deal of money for these firms’ consulting. For example, Merrill Lynch used VALS to change its advertising strategy. The firm had seen a disappointing response to its advertising campaign featuring a herd bulls used to symbolize the bull market. A lot of consumers responded, but not the wealthier ones the firm had hoped for. By making a very simple change—substituting a lone bull for the herd—based on advice from SRI, the wealthier group, which wanted to "stand apart" from the crowd, was attracted.

The second level is benefit desired—that is, segmenting on what someone wants rather than who he or she is. Implementing segmentation on benefit desired is more difficult since we have to research for each product category. The benefit, however, is that we can now make product that matches more closely a particular segment’s specific desires, and we can promote, price, and distribute it according to the desires of the segment. This method, then, lends itself extremely well to strong product positioning—we make a product that offers specific benefits, and we aggressively promote this fact to interested consumers. A drawback, however, is some efficiency is lost in marketing communication. While we can look up which television programs males ages twenty to thirty watch, we do not have this information for the segment of consumers that prefers scented over unscented handsoap.

The third level is segmentation based on behavior. Behavior here refers to a person’s response (or lack of response) to a given treatment. For example, some consumers will switch from their preferred brand to another one that happens to be on sale (the "switchers,") while others will stay with the preferred brand (the "loyals.") The trick, then, is to get as many switchers as possible to switch to your brand (which will take some incentive, such as a cents off coupon) while not giving this incentive to the brand loyals (who would have bought your brand even without the discount). In practice, segmenting on behavior can be very difficult. For example, supermarkets spend a great deal of money to establish the "clubs" that give price sensitive customers who are willing to go through with the required paperwork discounts not available to the "lazier" ones that end up paying full price. Despite this difficulty, the rewards are often great, because we can tailor the kind of deal we give a consumer to the minimum concession needed to get that consumer to buy our (as opposed to a competing) product.

Direct marketing offers exceptional opportunities for segmentation because marketers can buy lists of consumer names, addresses, and phone-numbers that indicate their specific interests. For example, if we want to target auto enthusiasts, we can buy lists of subscribers to auto magazines and people who have bought auto supplies through the mail. We can also buy lists of people who have particular auto makes registered.

No one list will contain all the consumers we want, and in recent years technology has made it possible, through the "merge-purge" process, to combine lists. For example, to reach the above-mentioned auto-enthusiasts, we buy lists of subscribers to several different car magazines, lists of buyers from the Hot Wheels and Wiring catalog, and registrations of Porsche automobiles in several states. We then combine these lists (the merge part). However, there will obviously be some overlap between the different lists—some people subscribe to more than one magazine, for example. The purge process, in turn, identifies and takes out as many duplicates as possible. This is not as simple task as it may sound up front. For example, the address "123 Main Street, Apartment 45" can be written several ways—e.g., 123 Main St., #123, or 123-45 Main Str. Similarly, John J. Jones could also be written as J. J. Jones, or it could be misspelled Jon J. Jonnes. Software thus "standardizes" addresses (e.g., all street addresses would be converted into the format "123 Main St #45" and even uses phonetic analysis to identify a likely alternative spelling of the same name.

Response rates for "good" lists—lists that represent a logical reason why consumer would be interested in a product—are typically quite low, hovering around 2-3%. Simply picking a consumer out of the phone-book would yield even lower responses—much less than one percent. Keep in mind that a relevant comparison here is to conventional advertising. The response rate to an ad placed in the newspaper or on television is usually well below one percent (frequently more like one-tenth of one percent). (More than one percent of people who see an ad for Coca Cola on TV will buy the product, but most of these people would have bought Coke anyway, so the marginal response is low).

Culture

Culture is part of the external influences that impact the consumer. That is, culture represents influences that are imposed on the consumer by other individuals.

The definition of culture offered in the text is "That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man person as a member of society." From this definition, we make the following observations:

Culture, as a "complex whole," is a system of interdependent components.
Knowledge and beliefs are important parts. In the U.S., we know and believe that a person who is skilled and works hard will get ahead. In other countries, it may be believed that differences in outcome result more from luck. "Chunking," the name for China in Chinese, literally means "The Middle Kingdom." The belief among ancient Chinese that they were in the center of the universe greatly influenced their thinking.
Other issues are relevant. Art, for example, may be reflected in the rather arbitrary practice of wearing ties in some countries and wearing turbans in others. Morality may be exhibited in the view in the United States that one should not be naked in public. In Japan, on the other hand, groups of men and women may take steam baths together without perceived as improper. On the other extreme, women in some Arab countries are not even allowed to reveal their faces. Notice, by the way, that what at least some countries view as moral may in fact be highly immoral by the standards of another country. For example, the law that once banned interracial marriages in South Africa was named the "Immorality Act," even though in most civilized countries this law, and any degree of explicit racial prejudice, would itself be considered highly immoral.

Culture has several important characteristics: (1) Culture is comprehensive. This means that all parts must fit together in some logical fashion. For example, bowing and a strong desire to avoid the loss of face are unified in their manifestation of the importance of respect. (2) Culture is learned rather than being something we are born with. We will consider the mechanics of learning later in the course. (3) Culture is manifested within boundaries of acceptable behavior. For example, in American society, one cannot show up to class naked, but wearing anything from a suit and tie to shorts and a T-shirt would usually be acceptable. Failure to behave within the prescribed norms may lead to sanctions, ranging from being hauled off by the police for indecent exposure to being laughed at by others for wearing a suit at the beach. (4) Conscious awareness of cultural standards is limited. One American spy was intercepted by the Germans during World War II simply because of the way he held his knife and fork while eating. (5) Cultures fall somewhere on a continuum between static and dynamic depending on how quickly they accept change. For example, American culture has changed a great deal since the 1950s, while the culture of Saudi Arabia has changed much less.

It should be noted that there is a tendency of outsiders to a culture to overstate the similarity of members of that culture to each other. In the United States, we are well aware that there is a great deal of heterogeneity within our culture; however, we often underestimate the diversity within other cultures. For example, in Latin America, there are great differences between people who live in coastal and mountainous areas; there are also great differences between social classes.

Cultural rules can be categorized into three types. Formal rules carry relatively explicit standards as to how one should behave, and violations often carry severe sanctions. For example, in many countries, two forms of the second pronoun (you) exist, with different levels of deference associated with each (e.g., tú and usted in Spanish and tu and vous in Spanish—German even has three levels!) In Japan, senior executives will enter and leave a meeting room before subordinates in a very deliberate manner. Informal rules, on the other hand, are less explicit and may not carry sanctions for violation. For example, in the U.S., most people would consider eating dinner at 10:00 p.m. weird, while this is perfectly normal in parts of Latin American and Southern Europe. Finally, technical cultural rules involve implicit standards as to what constitutes a good product. For example, in India, a movie must have at least seven songs to be successful; in the U.S., preempting the soundtrack for that amount of time would not be desirable.

Language is an important element of culture. It should be realized that regional differences may be subtle. For example, one word may mean one thing in one Latin American country, but something off-color in another. It should also be kept in mind that much information is carried in non-verbal communication. In some cultures, we nod to signify "yes" and shake our heads to signify "no;" in other cultures, the practice is reversed.

Different perspectives exist in different cultures on several issues; e.g.:

Monochronic cultures tend to value precise scheduling and doing one thing at a time; in polychronic cultures, in contrast, promptness is valued less, and multiple tasks may be performed simultaneously. (See text for more detail).

Space is perceived differently. Americans will feel crowded where people from more densely populated countries will be comfortable.

Symbols differ in meaning. For example, while white symbols purity in the U.S., it is a symbol of death in China. Colors that are considered masculine and feminine also differ by culture.
Americans have a lot of quite shallow friends toward whom little obligation is felt; people in European and some Asian cultures have fewer, but more significant friends. For example, one Ph.D. student from India, with limited income, felt obligated to try buy an airline ticket for a friend to go back to India when a relative had died.
In the U.S. and much of Europe, agreements are typically rather precise and contractual in nature; in Asia, there is a greater tendency to settle issues as they come up. As a result, building a relationship of trust is more important in Asia, since you must be able to count on your partner being reasonable.
In terms of etiquette, some cultures have more rigid procedures than others. In some countries, for example, there are explicit standards as to how a gift should be presented. In some cultures, gifts should be presented in private to avoid embarrassing the recipient; in others, the gift should be made publicly to ensure that no perception of secret bribery could be made.

The United States has undergone some changes in its predominant culture over the last several decades. Again, however, it should be kept in mind that there are great variations within the culture. For example, on the average, Americans have become less materialistic and have sought more leisure; on the other hand, the percentage of people working extremely long hours has also increased. The text discusses changes in values in more detail.

Significant changes have occurred in gender roles in American society. One of the reasons for this is that more women work outside the home than before. However, women still perform a disproportionate amount of housework, and men who participate in this activity tend to do so reluctantly. In general, commercials tend to lag somewhat behind reality—e.g., few men are seen doing housework, and few women are seen as buyers and decision makers on automobile purchases.

Subculture refers to a culture within a culture. For example, African Americans are, as indicated in the group name, Americans; however, a special influence of the African American community is often also present. For example, although this does not apply to everyone, African Americans tend to worship in churches that have predominantly African American membership, and church is often a significant part of family life.

Different perspectives on the diversity in U.S. culture exist. The "melting pot" metaphor suggests that immigrants gradually assimilate after they arrive. Therefore, in the long run, there will be few differences between ethnic groups and instead, one mainstream culture that incorporates elements from each will result. The "salad bowl" metaphor, in contrast, suggests that although ethnic groups will interact as a whole (through the whole mix of salad) and contain some elements of the whole (through the dressing), each group will maintain its own significant traits (each vegetable is different from the others). The "melting pot" view suggests that one should run integrated promotions aimed at all groups; the "salad bowl" approach suggests that each group should be approached separately.

Subculture is often categorized on the basis of demographics. Thus, for example, we have the "teenage" subculture and the "Cuban-American" subculture. While part of the overall culture, these groups often have distinguishing characteristics. An important consequence is that a person who is part of two subcultures may experience some conflict. For example, teenage native Americans experience a conflict between the mainstream teenage culture and traditional Indian ways.

Values are often greatly associated with age groups because people within an age-group have shared experiences. For example, it is believed that people old enough to have experienced the American Depression are more frugal because of that experience.

Regional influence, both in the United States and other areas, is significant. Many food manufacturers offer different product variations for different regions. Joel Garreau, in his book The Nine Nations of North America, proposed nine distinct regional subcultures that cut across state lines. Although significant regional differences undoubtedly exist, research has failed to support Garreau’s specific characterizations

Demographics and Social Stratification

Demographics are clearly tied to subculture and segmentation. Here, however, we shift our focus from analyzing specific subcultures to trying to understand the implications for an entire population of its makeup.

Several issues are useful in the structure of a population. For example, in some rapidly growing countries, a large percentage of the population is concentrated among younger generations. In countries such as Korea, China, and Taiwan, this has helped stimulate economic growth, while in certain poorer countries, it puts pressures on society to accommodate an increasing number of people on a fixed amount of land. Other countries such as Japan and Germany, in contrast, experience problems with a "graying" society, where fewer non-retired people are around to support an increasing number of aging seniors. Because Germany actually hovers around negative population growth, the German government has issued large financial incentives, in the forms of subsidies, for women who have children. In the United States, population growth occurs both through births and immigration. Since the number of births is not growing, problems occur for firms that are dependent on population growth (e.g., Gerber, a manufacturer of baby food).

Social class is a somewhat nebulous subject that involves stratifying people into groups with various amounts of prestige, power, and privilege. In part because of the pioneering influence in American history, status differentiations here are quite vague. We cannot, for example, associate social class with income, because a traditionally low status job as a plumber may today come with as much income as a traditionally more prestigious job as a school teacher. In certain other cultures, however, stratification is more clear-cut. Although the caste system in India is now illegal, it still maintains a tremendous influence on that society. While some mobility exists today, social class awareness is also somewhat greater in Britain, where social status is in part reinforced by the class connotations of the accent with which one speaks.

The text speaks of several indices that have been used to "compute" social class in the United States, weighing factors such as income, the nature of one’s employment, and level of education. Taken too literally, these indices are not very meaningful; more broadly speaking, they illustrate the reality that social status is a complex variable that is determined, not always with consensus among observers, by several different variables.

Family Decision Making

The Family Life Cycle. Individuals and families tend to go through a "life cycle." The simple life cycle goes from

child/teenager ---> young single ---> young couple^* ---> full nest

---> empty nest ---> widow(er).

^{*For
purposes of this discussion, a "couple" may either be married or
merely involve living together. The breakup of a non-marital relationship
involving cohabitation is similarly considered equivalent to a divorce.
In real life, this situation is, of course, a bit
more complicated. For example, many couples undergo divorce. Then we have the
scenario:
        full
nest ---> single parent
This situation can result either from divorce or
from the death of one parent. Divorce usually entails a significant change in
the relative wealth of spouses. In some cases, the non-custodial parent (usually
the father) will not pay the required child support, and even if he or she does,
that still may not leave the custodial parent and children as well off as they
were during the marriage. On the other hand, in some cases, some non-custodial
parents will be called on to pay a large part of their income in child support.
This is particularly a problem when the non-custodial parent remarries and has
additional children in the second (or subsequent marriages). In any event,
divorce often results in a large demand for:

low
cost furniture and household items

time-saving
goods and services

Divorced parents frequently remarry, or become
involved in other non-marital relationships; thus, we may see
        full
nest ---> single parent ---> blended family
Another variation involves
        young
single ---> single parent
Here, the single parent who assumes responsibility
for one or more children may not form a relationship with the other parent of
the child.
Generally, there are two main themes in the Family
Life Cycle, subject to significant exceptions:

As
a person gets older, he or she tends to advance in his or her career and
tends to get greater income (exceptions: maternity leave, divorce,
retirement).
Unfortunately,
obligations also tend to increase with time (at least until one’s
mortgage has been paid off). Children and paying for one’s house are two
of the greatest expenses.

Note that although a single person may have a lower
income than a married couple, the single may be able to buy more discretionary
items.

Family Decision Making:
Individual members of families often serve different roles in decisions that
ultimately draw on shared family resources. Some individuals are information
gatherers/holders, who seek out information about products of relevance.
These individuals often have a great deal of power because they may selectively
pass on information that favors their chosen alternatives. Influencers do
not ultimately have the power decide between alternatives, but they may make
their wishes known by asking for specific products or causing embarrassing
situations if their demands are not met. The decision maker(s) have the
power to determine issues such as:

whether
to buy;
which
product to buy (pick-up or passenger car?);
which
brand to buy;
where
to buy it; and
when
to buy.

Note, however, that the role of the decision maker
is separate from that of the purchaser. From the point of view of the
marketer, this introduces some problems since the purchaser can be targeted by
point-of-purchase (POP) marketing efforts that cannot be aimed at the decision
maker. Also note that the distinction between the purchaser and decision maker
may be somewhat blurred:

the
decision maker may specify what kind of product to buy, but not which
brand;
the
purchaser may have to make a substitution if the desired brand is not in
stock;
the
purchaser may disregard instructions (by error or deliberately).

It should be noted that family decisions are often
subject to a great deal of conflict. The reality is that few families are
wealthy enough to avoid a strong tension between demands on the family’s
resources. Conflicting pressures are especially likely in families with children
and/or when only one spouse works outside the home. Note that many decisions
inherently come down to values, and that there is frequently no
"objective" way to arbitrate differences. One spouse may believe that
it is important to save for the children’s future; the other may value
spending now (on private schools and computer equipment) to help prepare the
children for the future. Who is right? There is no clear answer here. The
situation becomes even more complex when more parties—such as children or
other relatives—are involved.
Some family members may resort to various
strategies to get their way. One is bargaining—one member will give up
something in return for someone else. For example, the wife says that her
husband can take an expensive course in gourmet cooking if she can buy a new
pickup truck. Alternatively, a child may promise to walk it every day if he or
she can have a hippopotamus. Another strategy is reasoning—trying to
get the other person(s) to accept one’s view through logical argumentation.
Note that even when this is done with a sincere intent, its potential is limited
by legitimate differences in values illustrated above. Also note that
individuals may simply try to "wear down" the other party by endless
talking in the guise of reasoning (this is a case of negative reinforcement
as we will see subsequently). Various manipulative strategies may also be used.
One is impression management, where one tries to make one’s side look
good (e.g., argue that a new TV will help the children see educational TV when
it is really mostly wanted to see sports programming, or argue that all
"decent families make a contribution to the church"). Authority
involves asserting one’s "right" to make a decision (as the
"man of the house," the mother of the children, or the one who makes
the most money). Emotion involves making an emotional display to get
one’s way (e.g., a man cries if his wife will not let him buy a new rap
album).

Group Influences

Humans are inherently social animals, and
individuals greatly influence each other.
A useful framework of analysis of group influence
on the individual is the so called reference group—the term comes about
because an individual uses a relevant group as a standard of reference against
which oneself is compared. Reference groups come in several different forms. The
aspirational reference group refers to those others against whom one
would like to compare oneself. For example, many firms use athletes as
spokespeople, and these represent what many people would ideally like to be. Associative
reference groups include people who more realistically represent the
individuals’ current equals or near-equals—e.g., coworkers, neighbors, or
members of churches, clubs, and organizations. Finally, the dissociative
reference group includes people that the individual would not like to be
like. For example, the store literally named The Gap came about because many
younger people wanted to actively dissociate from parents and other older and
"uncool" people. The Quality Paperback Book specifically suggests in
its advertising that its members are "a breed apart" from conventional
readers of popular books.
Reference groups come with various degrees of
influence. Primary reference groups come with a great deal of
influence—e.g., members of a fraternity/sorority. Secondary reference
groups tend to have somewhat less influence—e.g., members of a boating club
that one encounters only during week-ends are likely to have their influence
limited to consumption during that time period.
Another typology divides reference groups into the informational
kind (influence is based almost entirely on members’ knowledge), normative
(members influence what is perceived to be "right,"
"proper," "responsible," or "cool"), or identification.
The difference between the latter two categories involves the individual’s
motivation for compliance. In case of the normative reference group, the
individual tends to comply largely for utilitarian reasons—dressing according
to company standards is likely to help your career, but there is no real
motivation to dress that way outside the job. In contrast, people comply with
identification groups’ standards for the sake of belonging—for example, a
member of a religious group may wear a symbol even outside the house of worship
because the religion is a part of the person’s identity.

Diffusion of Innovation
The diffusion of innovation refers to the tendency
of new products, practices, or ideas to spread among people. Usually, when new
products or ideas come about, they are only adopted by a small group of people
initially; later, many innovations spread to other people. The bell shaped curve
frequently illustrates the rate of adoption of a new product. Cumulative
adoptions are reflected by the S-shaped curve. The saturation point is
the maximum proportion of consumers likely to adopt a product. In the case of
refrigerators in the U.S., the saturation level is nearly one hundred percent of
households; it well below that for video games that, even when spread out to a
large part of the population, will be of interest to far from everyone.
Several specific product categories have case
histories that illustrate important issues in adoption. Until some time in the
1800s, few physicians bothered to scrub prior to surgery, even though new
scientific theories predicted that small microbes not visible to the naked eye
could cause infection. Younger and more progressive physicians began scrubbing
early on, but they lacked the stature to make their older colleagues follow.
ATM cards spread relatively quickly. Since the
cards were used in public, others who did not yet hold the cards could see how
convenient they were. Although some people were concerned about security, the
convenience factors seemed to be a decisive factor in the "tug-of-war"
for and against adoption.
The case of credit cards was a bit more complicated
and involved a "chicken-and-egg" paradox. Accepting credit cards was
not a particularly attractive option for retailers until they were carried by a
large enough number of consumers. Consumers, in contrast, were not particularly
interested in cards that were not accepted by a large number of retailers. Thus,
it was necessary to "jump start" the process, signing up large
corporate accounts, under favorable terms, early in the cycle, after which the
cards became worthwhile for retailers to accept.
Rap music initially spread quickly among urban
youths in large part because of the low costs of recording. Later, rap music
became popular among a very different segment, suburban youths, because of its
apparently authentic depiction of an exotic urban lifestyle.
Hybrid corn was adopted only slowly among many
farmers. Although hybrid corn provided yields of about 20% more than traditional
corn, many farmers had difficulty believing that this smaller seed could provide
a superior harvest. They were usually reluctant to try it because a failed
harvest could have serious economic consequences, including a possible loss of
the farm. Agricultural extension agents then sought out the most progressive
farmers to try hybrid corn, also aiming for farmers who were most respected and
most likely to be imitated by others. Few farmers switched to hybrid corn
outright from year to year. Instead, many started out with a fraction of their
land, and gradually switched to 100% hybrid corn when this innovation had proven
itself useful.
Several forces often work against innovation. One
is risk, which can be either social or financial. For example, early buyers of
the CD player risked that few CDs would be recorded before the CD player went
the way of the 8 track player. Another risk is being perceived by others as
being weird for trying a "fringe" product or idea. For example,
Barbara Mandrell sings the song "I Was Country When Country Wasn’t
Cool." Other sources of resistance include the initial effort needed to
learn to use new products (e.g., it takes time to learn to meditate or to learn
how to use a computer) and concerns about compatibility with the existing
culture or technology. For example, birth control is incompatible with strong
religious influences in countries heavily influenced by Islam or Catholicism,
and a computer database is incompatible with a large, established card file.
Innovations come in different degrees. A continuous
innovation includes slight improvements over time. Very little usually changes
from year to year in automobiles, and even automobiles of the 1990s are driven
much the same way that automobiles of the 1950 were driven. A dynamically
continuous innovation involves some change in technology, although the
product is used much the same way that its predecessors were used—e.g., jet
vs. propeller aircraft. A discontinous innovation involves a product that
fundamentally changes the way that things are done—e.g., the fax and
photocopiers. In general, discontinuous innovations are more difficult to market
since greater changes are required in the way things are done, but the rewards
are also often significant.
Several factors influence the speed with which an
innovation spreads. One issue is relative advantage (i.e., the ratio of risk or
cost to benefits). Some products, such as cellular phones, fax machines, and ATM
cards, have a strong relative advantage. Other products, such as automobile
satellite navigation systems, entail some advantages, but the cost ratio is
high. Lower priced products often spread more quickly, and the extent to which
the product is trialable (farmers did not have to plant all their land
with hybrid corn at once, while one usually has to buy a cellular phone to try
it out) influence the speed of diffusion. Finally, the extent of switching
difficulties influences speed—many offices were slow to adopt computers
because users had to learn how to use them.
Some cultures tend to adopt new products more
quickly than others, based on several factors:

Modernity:
The extent to which the culture is receptive to new things. In some
countries, such as Britain and Saudi Arabia, tradition is greatly
valued—thus, new products often don’t fare too well. The United
States, in contrast, tends to value progress.

Homophily:
The more similar to each other that members of a culture are, the more
likely an innovation is to spread—people are more likely to imitate
similar than different models. The two most rapidly adopting countries in
the World are the U.S. and Japan. While the U.S. interestingly scores very
low, Japan scores high.

Physical
distance: The greater the distance
between people, the less likely innovation is to spread.

Opinion
leadership: The more opinion leaders
are valued and respected, the more likely an innovation is to spread. The
style of opinion leaders moderates this influence, however. In less
innovative countries, opinion leaders tend to be more conservative, i.e.,
to reflect the local norms of resistance.

It should be noted that innovation is not always an
unqualifiedly good thing. Some innovations, such as infant formula adopted in
developing countries, may do more harm than good. Individuals may also become
dependent on the innovations. For example, travel agents who get used to booking
online may be unable to process manual reservations.
Sometimes innovations are disadopted. For
example, many individuals disadopt cellular phones if they find out that they
don’t end up using them much.

Perception

Background.
Our perception is an approximation of reality. Our brain attempts to make sense
out of the stimuli to which we are exposed. This works well, for example, when
we "see" a friend three hundred feet away at his or her correct
height; however, our perception is sometimes "off"—for example,
certain shapes of ice cream containers look like they contain more than
rectangular ones with the same volume.

Factors in percpetion.
Several sequential factors influence our perception. Exposure involves
the extent to which we encounter a stimulus. For example, we are exposed to
numerous commercial messages while driving on the freeway: bill boards, radio
advertisements, bumper-stickers on cars, and signs and banners placed at
shopping malls that we pass. Most of this exposure is random—we don’t plan
to seek it out. However, if we are shopping for a car, we may deliberately seek
out advertisements and "tune in" when dealer advertisements come on
the radio.
Exposure is not enough to significantly impact the
individual—at least not based on a single trial (certain advertisements, or
commercial exposures such as the "Swoosh" logo, are based on extensive
repetition rather than much conscious attention). In order for stimuli to be
consciously processed, attention is needed. Attention is actually a
matter of degree—our attention may be quite high when we read directions for
getting an income tax refund, but low when commercials come on during a
television program. Note, however, that even when attention is low, it may be
instantly escalated—for example, if an advertisement for a product in which we
are interested comes on.

Interpretation
involves making sense out of the stimulus. For example, when we see a red can,
we may categorize it as a CokeÒ .

Weber’s Law
suggests that consumers’ ability to detect changes in stimulus intensity
appear to be strongly related to the intensity of that stimulus to begin with.
That is, if you hold an object weighing one pound in your hand, you are likely
to notice it when that weight is doubled to two pounds. However, if you are
holding twenty pounds, you are unlikely to detect the addition of one pound—a
change that you easily detected when the initial weight was one pound. You may
be able to eliminate one ounce from a ten ounce container, but you cannot as
easily get away with reducing a three ounce container to two (instead, you must
accomplish that gradually—e.g., 3.0 --> 2.7 --> 2.5 --> 2.3 -->
2.15 –> 2.00).
Several factors influence the extent to which
stimuli will be noticed. One obvious issue is relevance. Consumers, when
they have a choice, are also more likely to attend to pleasant stimuli
(but when the consumer can’t escape, very unpleasant stimuli are also likely
to get attention—thus, many very irritating advertisements are remarkably
effective).

Surprising
stimuli are likely to get more attention—survival instinct requires us to give
more attention to something unknown that may require action. A greater contrast
(difference between the stimulus and its surroundings) as well as greater prominence
(e.g., greater size, center placement) also tend to increase likelihood of
processing.

Learning and Memory

Background.
Learning involves "a change in the content or organization of long term
memory and/or behavior." The first part of the definition focuses on what
we know (and can thus put to use) while the second focuses on concrete behavior.
For example, many people will avoid foods that they consumed shortly before
becoming ill. Learning is not all knowledge based. For example, we may
experience the sales people in one store being nicer to us than those in the
other. We thus may develop a preference for the one store over the other;
however, if pressed, we may not be able to give a conscious explanation as to
the reason for our preference.
Much early work on learning was actually done on
rats and other animals (and much of this research was unjustifiably cruel, but
that is another matter).

Classical conditioning.
Pavlov’s early work on dogs was known as classical conditioning. Pavlov
discovered that when dogs were fed meat powder they salivated. Pavlov then
discovered that if a bell were rung before the dogs were fed, the dogs would
begin salivating in anticipation of being fed (this was efficient, since
they could then begin digesting the meat powder immediately). Pavlov then found
that after the meat had been "paired" with the meat powder enough
times, Pavlov could ring the bell without feeding the dogs and they would
still salivate.
In the jargon of classical conditioning, the meat
powder was an unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation was, when
preceded by the meat powder, an unconditioned response (UR). That is, it
is a biologically "hard-wired" response to salivate when you are fed.
By pairing the bell with the unconditioned stimulus, the bell became a conditioned
stimulus (CS) and salivation in response to the bell (with no meat powder)
became a conditioned response (CR).
Many modern day advertisers use classical
conditioning in some way. Consider this sequence:
Beautiful woman (US) ---> emotional arousal (UR)
in males
Beautiful woman (US) + automobile (not yet CS)
---> arousal (US) [repeated many tiimes]
Automobile (CS) ---> arousal (CR)
(For the exam, you should be able to diagram an
example given).

Operant conditioning. Instrumental,
or operant, conditioning, involves a different series of events, and this what
we usually think of as learning. The general pattern is:
Behavior ---> consequences ---> behavior is
more or less likely to be repeated
There are three major forms of operant learning. In
positive reinforcement, an individual does something and is
rewarded. He or she is then more likely to repeat the behavior. For example, you
eat a candy bar (behavior), it tastes good (consequence), and you are thus more
likely to eat a similar candy bar in the future (behavioral change).

Punishment is
the opposite. You eat what looks like a piece of candy (behavior), only to
discover that it is a piece of soap with a foul taste (consequences), and
subsequently you are less likely to eat anything that looks remotely like that
thing ever again (changed behavior).
It should be noted that negative reinforcement
is very different from punishment. An example of negative reinforcement
is an obnoxious sales person who calls you up on the phone, pressuring you into
buying something you don’t want to do (aversive stimulus). You eventually
agree to buy it (changed behavior), and the sales person leaves you alone (the
aversive stimulus is terminated as a result of consequences of your behavior).
Please note the examples of reinforcement,
punishment, and negative reinforcement on the notes handout.
In general, marketers usually have relatively
little power to use punishment or negative reinforcement. However, parking
meters are often used to discourage consumers from taking up valuable parking
space, and manufacturers may void warranties if the consumers take their product
to non-authorized repair facilities.
Several factors influence the effectiveness of
operant learning. In general, the closer in time the consequences are to
the behavior, the more effective the learning. That is, electric utilities would
be more likely to influence consumers to use less electricity at peak hours if
the consumers actually had to pay when they used electricity (e.g., through a
coin-slot) rather than at the end of the month. Learning is also more likely to
occur when the individual can understand a relationship between behavior
and consequences (but learning may occur even if this relationship is not
understood consciously).
Another issue is schedules of reinforcement and extinction.
Extinction occurs when behavior stops having consequences and the behavior then
eventually stops occurring. For example, if a passenger learns that yelling at
check-in personnel no longer gets her upgraded to first class, she will probably
stop that behavior. Sometimes, an individual is rewarded every time a behavior
is performed (e.g., a consumer gets a soft drink every time coins are put into a
vending machine). However, it is not necessary to reward a behavior every time
for learning to occur. Even if a behavior is only rewarded some of the time, the
behavior may be learned. Several different schedules of reinforcement are
possible:

Fixed
interval: The consumer is given a
free dessert on every Tuesday when he or she eats in a particular
restaurant.

Fixed
ratio: Behavior is rewarded (or
punished) on every nth occasion that it is performed. (E.g., every
tenth time a frequent shopper card is presented, a free product is
provided).

Variable
ratio: Every time an action is
performed, there is a certain percentage chance that a reward will be
given. For example, every time the consumer enters the store, he or she is
given a lottery ticket. With each ticket, there is a 20% chance of getting
a free hamburger. The consumer may get a free hamburger twice in a row, or
he or she may go ten times without getting a hamburger even once.

Variable ratio reinforcement is least vulnerable
to extinction.
Sometimes, shaping may be necessary to teach
the consumer the desired behavior. That is, it may be impossible to teach the
consumer to directly perform the desired behavior. For example, a consumer may
first get a good product for free (the product itself, if good, is a reward),
then buy it with a large cents off coupon, and finally buy it at full price.
Thus, we reinforce approximations of the desired behavior. Rather than
introducing Coca Cola directly in Indonesia, fruit flavored soft drinks were
first introduced, since these were more similar to beverages already consumed.

Vicarious learning.
The consumer does not always need to go through the learning process himself or
herself—sometimes it is possible to learn from observing the
consequences of others. For example, stores may make a big deal out of
prosecuting shop lifters not so much because they want to stop that behavior in
the those caught, but rather to deter the behavior in others. Similarly, viewers
may empathize with characters in advertisements who experience (usually
positive) results from using a product. The Head ‘n’ Shoulders
advertisement, where a poor man is rejected by women until he treats his
dandruff with an effective cure, is a good example of vicarious learning.

Memory. There
are two kinds of memory. When you see an ad on TV for a mail order product you
might like to buy, you only keep the phone number in memory until you have
dialed it. This is known as short term memory. In order for something to
enter into long term memory, which is more permanent, you must usually
"rehearse" it several times. For example, when you move and get a new
phone number, you will probably repeat it to yourself many times. Alternatively,
you get to learn your driver’s license or social security numbers with time,
not because you deliberately memorize them, but instead because you encounter
them numerous times as you look them up.
A special issue in memory are so called
"scripts," or procedures we remember for doing things. Scripts involve
a series of steps for doing various things (e.g., how to send a package). In
general, it is useful for firms to have their brand names incorporated into
scripts (e.g., to have the consumer reflexively ask the pharmacist for Bayer
rather than an unspecified brand of aspirin).

Motivation, Personality, and Emotion
Perspectives on Consumer Behavior
and Motivation. We considered several perspectives on behavior as a way to
understand what motivates the consumer. Each of these perspectives suggests
different things as to what the marketer should do and what can (and cannot) be
controlled. Note that each perspective tends to contain a "grain"
oftruth and that one should not be too dogmatic in emphasizing one over the
others.

The
Hard Core Behavioral perspective is based on learning theories such
as operant and classical conditioning. These theories suggest that
consumers must learn from their own experiences--i.e., in order to
avoid getting sick from overeating, a consumer must experience the stomach
and other ailments resulting from gluttony rather than merely observing other
people who overeat and get sick. This suggests, then, that it is
important to reward good behavior (e.g., buying our brand) to the extent
possible. Money spent on advertising is seen as less useful. Hard core
behaviorists tend to look at observable behavior (e.g., buying our brand or
buying another) rather than trying to find out what is going on inside the
heads of consumers--i.e., hard core behaviorists do not like to mess with
"mushy" things like attitudes.
The
Social Learning Perspective, in contrast, allows for vicarious
learning--i.e., learning obtained by watching others getting good or bad
consequences for behavior. The models that may be observed and
imitated include peers and family members as well as relevant others that
may be observed in advertising. From our study of social influences, we
know that certain people are more likely to be imitated than others--e.g.,
those that are more similar to ourselves based on relevant factors such as
age, social status, or ethnic group. Consider, for example, the poor man
who is rejected by women because of his dandruff until he gets "with
it" and uses Head ‘n’ Shoulders shampoo. Other dandruff sufferers
are likely to learn from the model’s experience. Generally, observations
are made of overt behavior, but some room is made for individual reasoning
in learning from others. This perspective is clearly more realistic than
that of the "Hard Core" view, but it should be noted that the
strength of learning tends to be greater for that gained from own
experience.
The
Cognitive approach emphasizes consumer thinking rather than
mere behavior--we will encounter this to a great extent when we study
decision making and attitudes. Here, the emphasis is on how people reason
themselves to the consequences of their behavior. Note that it is often
somewhat more difficult to attempt to "get into" a consumer’s
head than it is to merely observe his or her behavior, and what we
"observe" is somewhat more subjective. Note also that a wealth
of different factors influence people’s thinking, and some expectations
and assumptions that we hold tend to be culturally influenced (e.g., an
American assumes that hard work will tend to lead to a promotion, while
members of certain other cultures believe that personal relationships, and
perhaps even luck, tend to be more important).
The
Biological approach suggests that most behavior is determined by
genetics or other biological bases. By this perspective, it is suggested
that consumers eat the foods they eat in large part because the body
craves these foods. Note that although craving for fatty foods seems quite
maladaptive in today’s society, it could have been very adaptive earlier
in human history where food was scarce and obtaining as many calories as
possible helped ensure survival. Clearly, this perspective is very
misleading when one takes it as the only explanation of
behavior--for example, people in different cultures learn to enjoy various
kinds of foods. The main implication of biological determinism is
that the marketer must adapt--for example, food advertisements are
more likely to be effective when people are hungry, and thus they might
better be run in the late afternoon rather than in the late morning.
The
Rational Expectations perspective is based on an economic way of
looking at the World. Economists assume that people think
rationally and have perfect information, even though they know very well
that these assumptions are often unrealistic. However, despite the
unrealistic assumptions made, economists often make relatively accurate
predictions of human behavior. (The Cognitive perspective, however, is
able to identify certain significant exceptions to rational behavior,
however).
The
Psychoanalytic perspective is based on the work of historical
psychologists such as Sigmund Freud who suggest that (1) much behavior has
a biological basis which is (2) often sexual in nature, and (3) that early
experiences in childhood will have a profound, but unconscious
effect on later life--e.g., people who are rejected in an early,
"oral" phase of development may become "oral
retentive" and end up as wine connoisseurs later in life.
Because of societal injunctions against explicit discussion of sexuality
in Western society at Freud’s time [late 1800s to mid 1900s], many
objects were thought to take on seemingly unrelated symbolic meanings--e.g.,
a tie might become a symbol of a male reproductive organ. Although modern
psychologists certainly recognize that early experiences may influence
later psychological well being, the psychoanalytic view has largely been
discredited today as being much too centered on the issue of sex. However,
this perspective enjoys a great deal of popularity among many advertising
executives. It should be noted that Freudian psychology tends to violate
the cherished scientific ideal of parsimony, where a scientist is expected
to propose the simplest theory that will account for observed
phenomena.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
The late Abraham Maslow suggested the intuitively appealing notion that humans
must satisfy the most basic objectives before they can move onto "higher
level" ones. Thus, an individual must satisfy physiological needs (such as
food and liquid) before he or she will be able to expend energy on less
fundamental objectives such as safety. Only when basic objectives have been met
will a person move on to seek such objectives as love and belonging, and only a
small minority of people make it as far as seeking self-actualization.
Maslow’s Hierarchy is useful in understanding
different needs of consumers across the World. However, one must be careful not
to take it too literally, since people may occasionally "swing"
between needs. For example, a homeless person who currently does not have
shelter may seek that out even though he or she is hungry.
Properties of motivation. Motivation is described
through several properties:

Motivation
is composed of energy and direction.
A person may or may not have enough motivation to engage in a given
activity. For example, a person may be motivated enough to go and shop for
food, but not enough to engage in a comprehensive exercise program.

Motives
may be overt, hidden, and multiple.
Some motivations are publicly expressed (e.g., the desire to buy an energy
efficient house), while others (e.g., the desire to look wealthy by buying
a fancy car) are not. Individuals may also hold multiple motivations
(e.g., buy a car and save money for retirement) which may conflict.

Many
motivations are driven by the desire for tension reduction
(e.g., eliminate thirst or hunger).

Motivations
can be driven by both internal and external factors.
That is, a person may want a painting either because he or she likes it
(internal motivation) or because this will give her status among the
artistic elite (external).

Motivations
may have either a positive or negative valence--people
may either be motivated to achieve something (e.g., get a promotion at
work) or avoid something (e.g., being hospitalized without having adequate
insurance).

Consumers
are motivated to achieve goals.
Achieving these goals may require sustained activity over time (e.g.,
exercising every day for months or years) as opposed to just taking some
action once.

Consumers
maintain a balance between the desires for stability and variety.
Most consumers want some variety (e.g., they do not want to eat the same
meal every day), but also want a certain stability (they do not want to
try an entirely new food every day).

Motivation
reflects individual differences.
Different consumers are motivated to achieve different things, and it may
be difficult to infer motivations from looking at actual behavior without
understanding these differences in desired outcomes.

The reality that consumers are frequently motivated
by multiple motives suggests a possibility that motives may conflict. Three main
types of conflict exists:

Approach-avoidance.
One alternative has both positive consequences (that one wishes to seek
out) and negative consequences (that one wants to avoid). For example,
eating a large banana split is an enjoyable experience
("approach"), but is contains a lot of calories
("avoidance") and may make one feel ill later (another
avoidance).

Approach-approach.
A consumer wants to do two incompatible things at the same time. A classic
example is "Rainman’s" desire both to stay with his brother
and stay at the institution. Another example is a consumer who only has
one week’s vacation but wants equally to go to Hawaii and Greenland, but
has time and money only for one of the two.

Avoidance-avoidance.
A consumer does not want to go for either of two alternatives, but must
choose the lesser of two evils. For example, the consumer does not want to
pay for car insurance, but does not want to get into an accident or get
caught by the police without it. A "work ethic disadvantaged"
student does not want to study, but does not want to fail his or her
courses, either.

The Means-End chain.
Consumers often buy products not because of their attributes per se but
rather because of the ultimate benefits that these attributes provide, in turn
leading to the satisfaction of ultimate values. For example, a consumer may not
be particularly interested in the chemistry of plastic roses, but might reason
as follows:
Highly reliable synthetic content of roses --->
Roses will stay in original condition for a long
time --->
Significant other will appreciate the roses longer
--->
Significant other will continue to love one --->
Self esteem.
The important thing in a means-end chain is to
start with an attribute, a concrete characteristic of the product, and
then logically progress to a series of consequences (which tend to become
progressively more abstract) that end with a value being satisfied. Thus,
each chain must start with an attribute and end with a value.
An important implication of means-end chains is
that it is usually most effective in advertising to focus on higher level
items. For example, in the flower example above, an individual giving the
flowers to the significant other might better be portrayed than the flowers
alone.

Personality and consumer behavior.
Traditional research in marketing has not been particularly successful in
finding a link between personality and consumer behavior. Part of the problem
here is that much of the theory has been developed by clinical psychologists who
have tended to work with maladjusted people. Not surprisingly, research that
sought to predict, based on standard personality inventories, which kinds of
consumers would buy Chevrolets as opposed to Fords was not successful.

Emotion.
Emotion impacts marketing efforts in several ways. One purpose is to get attention
to a stimulus (since emotionally charged individuals tend to be less predictable
than calmer ones, there has been an evolutionary advantage in paying attention
to emotion). Secondly, emotion influences information processing. In
general, happy people tend to scrutinize arguments given (e.g., purported
benefits of using a product) somewhat less, since they do not want to lose their
happy moods by doing too much thinking. In general, happy ads are somewhat
better liked, and may be better remembered. Empathy may
also increase liking for the ad and the sponsoring product.

Attitudes

Definition.
Consumer attitudes are a composite of a consumer’s (1) beliefs about, (2)
feelings about, (3) and behavioral intentions toward some object--within the
context of marketing, usually a brand or retail store. These components are
viewed together since they are highly interdependent and together represent
forces that influence how the consumer will react to the object.

Beliefs. The
first component is beliefs. A consumer may hold both positive beliefs
toward an object (e.g., coffee tastes good) as well as negative beliefs (e.g.,
coffee is easily spilled and stains papers). In addition, some beliefs may be
neutral (coffee is black), and some may be differ in valance depending on the
person or the situation (e.g., coffee is hot and stimulates--good on a cold
morning, but not good on a hot summer evening when one wants to sleep). Note
also that the beliefs that consumers hold need not be accurate (e.g., that pork
contains little fat), and some beliefs may, upon closer examination, be
contradictory (e.g., that a historical figure was a good person but also owned
slaves).
Since a consumer holds many beliefs, it may often
be difficult to get down to a "bottom line" overall belief about
whether an object such as McDonald’s is overall good or bad. The
Multiattribute (also sometimes known as the Fishbein) Model attempts to
summarize overall attitudes into one score using the equation:

That is, for each belief, we take the weight, or
importance (W_i) of that belief and mutiply it with its evaluation (X_ib).
For example, a consumer believes that the taste of a beverage is moderately
important, or a 4 on a scale from 1 to 7. He or she believes that coffee tastes
very good, or a 6 on a scale from 1 to 7. Thus, the product here is 4(6)=24. On
the other hand, he or she believes that the potential of a drink to stain is
extremely important (7), and coffee fares moderately badly, at a score -4, on
this attribute (since this is a negative belief, we now take negative numbers
from -1 to -7, with -7 being worst). Thus, we now have 7(-4)=-28. Had these two
beliefs been the only beliefs the consumer held, his or her total, or
aggregated, attitude would have been 24+(-28)=-4. In practice, of course,
consumers tend to have many more beliefs that must each be added to obtain an
accurate measurement.

Affect.
Consumers also hold certain feelings toward brands or other objects. Sometimes
these feelings are based on the beliefs (e.g., a person feels nauseated when
thinking about a hamburger because of the tremendous amount of fat it contains),
but there may also be feelings which are relatively independent of beliefs. For
example, an extreme environmentalist may believe that cutting down trees is
morally wrong, but may have positive affect toward Christmas trees because he or
she unconsciously associates these trees with the experience that he or she had
at Christmas as a child.

Behavioral intention.
The behavioral intention is what the consumer plans to do with respect to the
object (e.g., buy or not buy the brand). As with affect, this is sometimes a
logical consequence of beliefs (or affect), but may sometimes reflect other
circumstances--e.g., although a consumer does not really like a restaurant, he
or she will go there because it is a hangout for his or her friends.

Attitude-Behavior Consistency.
Consumers often do not behave consistently with their attitudes for several
reasons:

Ability.
He or she may be unable to do so.
Although junior high school student likes pick-up trucks and would like to
buy one, she may lack a driver’s license.

Competing
demands for resources. Although the
above student would like to buy a pickup truck on her sixteenth birthday,
she would rather have a computer, and has money for only one of the two.

Social
influence. A student thinks that
smoking is really cool, but since his friends think it’s disgusting, he
does not smoke.

Measurement
problems. Measuring attitudes is
difficult. In many situations, consumers do not consciously set out to
enumerate how positively or negatively they feel about mopeds, and when a
market researcher asks them about their beliefs about mopeds, how
important these beliefs are, and their evaluation of the performance of
mopeds with respect to these beliefs, consumers often do not give very
reliable answers. Thus, the consumers may act consistently with their true
attitudes, which were never uncovered because an erroneous measurement was
made.

Attitude Change Strategies.
Changing attitudes is generally very difficult, particularly when
consumers suspect that the marketer has a self-serving agenda in bringing about
this change (e.g., to get the consumer to buy more or to switch brands).

Changing affect.
One approach is to try to change affect, which may or may not involve getting
consumers to change their beliefs. One strategy uses the approach of classical
conditioning try to "pair" the product with a liked stimulus. For
example, we "pair" a car with a beautiful woman. Alternatively, we can
try to get people to like the advertisement and hope that this liking will
"spill over" into the purchase of a product. For example, the
Pillsbury Doughboy does not really emphasize the conveyance of much information
to the consumer; instead, it attempts to create a warm, fuzzy image. Although
Energizer Bunny ads try to get people to believe that their batteries last
longer, the main emphasis is on the likeable bunny. Finally, products which are
better known, through the mere exposure effect, tend to be better
liked--that is, the more a product is advertised and seen in stores, the more it
will generally be liked, even if consumers to do not develop any specific
beliefs about the product.

Changing behavior.
People like to believe that their behavior is rational; thus, once they use our
products, chances are that they will continue unless someone is able to get them
to switch. One way to get people to switch to our brand is to use temporary
price discounts and coupons; however, when consumers buy a product on deal, they
may justify the purchase based on that deal (i.e., the low price) and may then
switch to other brands on deal later. A better way to get people to switch to
our brand is to at least temporarily obtain better shelf space so that the
product is more convenient. Consumers are less likely to use this availability
as a rationale for their purchase and may continue to buy the product even when
the product is less conveniently located. (Notice, by the way, that this
represents a case of shaping).

Changing beliefs.
Although attempting to change beliefs is the obvious way to attempt attitude
change, particularly when consumers hold unfavorable or inaccurate ones, this is
often difficult to achieve because consumers tend to resist. Several approaches
to belief change exist:

Change
currently held beliefs. It is
generally very difficult to attempt to change beliefs that people hold,
particularly those that are strongly held, even if they are inaccurate.
For example, the petroleum industry advertised for a long time that its
profits were lower than were commonly believed, and provided extensive
factual evidence in its advertising to support this reality. Consumers
were suspicious and rejected this information, however.

Change
the importance of beliefs. Although
the sugar manufacturers would undoubtedly like to decrease the importance
of healthy teeth, it is usually not feasible to make beliefs less
important--consumers are likely to reason, why, then, would you bother
bringing them up in the first place? However, it may be possible to
strengthen beliefs that favor us--e.g., a vitamin supplement manufacturer
may advertise that it is extremely important for women to replace iron
lost through menstruation. Most consumers already agree with this, but the
belief can be made stronger.

Add
beliefs. Consumers are less likely to
resist the addition of beliefs so long as they do not conflict with
existing beliefs. Thus, the beef industry has added beliefs that beef
(1) is convenient and (2) can be used to make a number of creative dishes.
Vitamin manufacturers attempt to add the belief that stress causes vitamin
depletion, which sounds quite plausible to most people.

Change
ideal. It usually difficult, and very
risky, to attempt to change ideals, and only few firms succeed. For
example, Hard Candy may have attempted to change the ideal away from
traditional beauty toward more unique self expression.

One-sided vs. two-sided appeals.
Attitude research has shown that consumers often tend to react more favorably to
advertisements which either (1) admit something negative about the sponsoring
brand (e.g., the Volvo is a clumsy car, but very safe) or (2) admits something
positive about a competing brand (e.g., a competing supermarket has slightly
lower prices, but offers less service and selection). Two-sided appeals must,
contain overriding arguments why the sponsoring brand is ultimately
superior--that is, in the above examples, the "but" part must be
emphasized.

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and
Celebrity Endorsements. The ELM suggests
that consumers will scrutinize claims more in important situations than in
unimportant ones. For example, we found that in the study of people trying to
get ahead of others in a line to use photo copiers, the compliance rate was
about fifty percent when people just asked to get ahead. However, when the
justification "... because I have to make copies" was added,
compliance increased to 80%. Since the reason offered really did not add
substantive information, we conclude that it was not extensively analyzed--in
the jargon of the theory, "elaboration" was low.
The ELM suggests that for "unimportant"
products, elaboration will be low, and thus Bill Cosby is able to endorse Coke
and Jell-O without having any special credentials to do so. However, for
products which are either expensive or important for some other reason (e.g., a
pain reliever given to a child that could be harmed by using dangerous
substances), elaboration is likely to be more extensive, and the endorser is
expected to be "congruent," or compatible, with the product. For
example, a basket ball player is likely to be effective in endorsing athletic
shoes, but not in endorsing automobiles. On the other hand, a nationally
syndicated auto columnist would be successful in endorsing cars, but not
athletic shoes. All of them, however, could endorse fast food restaurants
effectively.

Appeal approaches.
Several approaches to appeal may be used. The use of affect to induce empathy
with advertising characters may increase attraction to a product, but may
backfire if consumers believe that people’s feelings are being exploited. Fear
appeals appear to work only if (1) an optimal level of fear is evoked--not
so much that people tune it out, but enough to scare people into action and
(2) a way to avoid the feared stimulus is explicitly indicated--e.g., gingivitis
and tooth loss can be avoided by using this mouth wash. Humor appears to
be effective in gaining attention, but does not appear to increase persuasion in
practice. In addition, a more favorable attitude toward the advertisement may be
created by humorous advertising, which may in turn result in increased sales. Comparative
advertising, which is illegal in many countries, often increases sales for
the sponsoring brand, but may backfire in certain cultures.

Self-Concept, Situational
Influences, and Lifestyle

The self-concept.
The consumer faces several possible selves. The actual self reflects how
the individual actually is, although the consumer may not be aware of that
reality (e.g., many anorexic consumers who are dangerously thin believe that
they are in fact fat). In contrast, the ideal self reflects a self that a
person would like to have, but does not in fact have. For example, a couch
potato may want to be a World famous athlete, but may have no actual athletic
ability. The private self is one that is not intentionally exposed to
others. For example, a police officer may like and listen to rap music in
private, but project a public self-image of a country music enthusiast,
playing country songs at work where police officers are portrayed as heroes. The
key here is to keep in mind which kind of self we are trying to reach in
promotional messages. If we appeal to the hidden self, for example, we must be
careful to make our appeals subtle and hint, if appropriate, on how the
individual’s confidentiality and privacy can be enhanced.
Individuals will often seek to augment and enhance
their self concepts, and it may be possible to market products that help achieve
this goal. For example, a successful attorney may want to wear (in politically
correct terms) cowchild boots and a cowchild hat to bring home an image as a
ranch enthusiast.

Lifestyles.
Self-concept often translates into a person’s lifestyle, or the way that he or
she lives his or her life. For example, a person may be very materialistic,
preferring to wear flashy clothes and drive expensive cars, or prefer instead a
simpler life with fewer visible status symbols. Attempts have been made to
classify consumers into various segments based on their lifestyles. The Values
and Lifestyle (VALS) Project, developed by the Stanford Research Institute
(SRI), attempts to classify people based on a combination of values and
resources. Thus, for example, both "Achievers" and
"Strivers" want public recognition, but only the Achievers have the
resources to bring this about. A global analogue is the Global Scan.

Situational influences.
Specific circumstances often influence consumer behavior. For example, consumers
in a rush are likely to take the most convenient product available. Consumers
whose attention is demanded elsewhere are likely to disregard commercial
messages. Consumers shopping for a special occasion (e.g., a wedding) may buy
different products.

Consumer Decision Making

Definitions.
Consumer decision making comes about as an attempt to solve consumer problems. A
problem refers to "a discrepancy between a desired state and an
ideal state which is sufficient to arouse and activate a decision process."
Thus, problems can be major (e.g., a consumer has been fired and is without a
job) or minor (e.g., the consumer lacks an eraser necessary to take an exam the
next day), and the broader and more ambiguous a problem is, the more potential
solutions are generally available (see class slides for examples).

Consumer Problem Recognition.
Consumers often note problems by comparing their current, or actual, situation,
explicitly or implicitly, to some desired situation. In terms of the "big
picture," what is compared may be the totality of one’s lifestyle. Once a
discrepancy is found, a determination is found as to whether this is large
enough to warrant action, in which case a search for solutions is initiated.
Problems come in several different types. A problem
may be an active one (e.g., you have a headache and would like as quick a
solution as possible) or inactive-- you are not aware that your situation
is a problem (e.g., a consumer is not aware that he or she could have more
energy with a new vitamin). Problems may be acknowledged (e.g., a
consumer is aware that his or her car does not accelerate well enough or unacknowledged
(e.g., a consumer will not acknowledge that he or she consumes too much
alcohol). Finally, needs can be relatively specific (generic), as in the need
for enjoyment (which can be satisfied many different ways), or specific, as in
the need for professional attire to wear at a new job.
Several different methods can be used to detect
consumer problems, which are discussed on pp. 508-509 in the text.
Creating problems for consumers is a way to
increase sales, albeit a questionably ethical one. One way to create new
problems, and resultant needs, is to create a new ideal state. This is often
done quite arbitrarily in the fashion industry, as skirt lengths and the
appropriate number of buttons on a suit often change arbitrarily up and down. It
may also be possible to create dissatisfaction with current states--e.g., a firm
may publicize current crime statistics to increase the sales of handguns and
alarms. Many vocational training schools advertise that better careers than the
consumer’s current one are available upon graduation (a promise on which, by
the way, they may not deliver in the end).
There are two main approaches to search. Internal
searches are based on what consumers already know. Thus, it may be important
for certain firms to advertise to consumers before they actually need the
product. For example, one bail bond company advertised its existence to people
"in case you ever find yourself in jail." As another example, if you
decide to go out for fast food, you may not consult any directories, but instead
search your memory for fast food restaurants conveniently located. A problem is
that some excellent ones which are not remembered, or have never been heard of,
are not considered. External searches get people to either speak to
others (getting information by word of mouth) or use other sources (such as
advertisements now sought out or yellow page listings). Because the yellow pages
are often the first place to which people turn, this medium is able to charge
very large advertising rates.
Consumers often do not consider all alternatives.
Some are not known (the "unawareness" set), some were once known but
are not readily accessible in memory (the "inert" set), others are
ruled out as unsatisfactory (the "inept" set--e.g., Glad bags attempts
to get "bargain bags" into that set), and those that are considered
represent the "evoked" set, from which one alternative is likely to be
purchased.
The amount of effort a consumer puts into searching
depends on a number of factors such as the market (how many competitors are
there, and how great are differences between brands expected to be?), product
characteristics (how important is this product? How complex is the product? How
obvious are indications of quality?), consumer characteristics (how interested
is a consumer, generally, in analyzing product characteristics and making the
best possible deal?), and situational characteristics (as previously discussed).
Two interesting issues in decisions are variety
seeking (where consumers seek to try new brands not because these brands are
expected to be "better" in any way, but rather because the consumer
wants a "change of pace," and "impulse" purchases.
Impulse purchases are, generally speaking, unplanned, but represent a somewhat
fuzzy group. For example, a shopper may plan to buy vegetables but only decide
in the store to actually buy broccoli and corn. Alternatively, a person may buy
an item which is currently on sale, or one that he or she remembers that is
needed only once inside the store (remember the Wal-Mart article).
Several different strategies for influencing
consumer decision making are discussed in the text on pp. 537-541.

Consumer Outlet Selection

Retail evolution and consumer choice.
For many products, consumers frequently have numerous choices as to where
they are going to actually obtain the product. Although we are used to thinking
of buying automobiles only from dealerships, for example, it is today possible
to buy them through brokers or fleet sales organizations that may both (1) offer
a lower price and/or (2) provide the help of a neutral third party which does
not have a vested interest in the sales of one make over the other.
In general, the evolution of diversity in the
retail scene has provided consumers with more choice. In the old days, most
consumers had access only to "general" stores for most products.
Gradually, in urban environments, specialty and discount stores evolved. Today,
a consumer may generally choose to buy most products either at a relatively high
price, frequently with a significant amount of service, in a specialty store, or
with lower service in a discount store. A special case of the discount store is
the category killer--a store that tends to specialize in some limited
area (e.g., electronics), lacking the breadth of a traditional discount store
often undercutting the traditional discount store on price (which they are able
to do because of the bargaining power that results from high buying volumes of a
narrow assortment of merchandise from the same manufacturer).

"At home" shopping and electronic
commerce. During the last several decades,
the incidence of "at home" shopping has increased. The growth of
catalog sales can be traced to advances in computer technology and subsequent
list availability (as we discussed in the section of direct marketing
segmentation methods). A more recent development is Internet based marketing.
Although sales are modest in this domain at the moment, it is too early to judge
the total potential of this medium. Although many of the concerns that consumers
hold about computer crime tend to be exaggerated and/or largely unwarranted,
public fears are a major holdback. Another problem is the demographics of
computer and Internet use--the majority of U.S. consumers, and certainly the
great majority of residents of even highly industrialized countries, are not
regular Internet users. Certain products specifically aimed at heavy Internet
users (e.g., records, software) and products/services that require a high level
of customization (e.g., airline tickets) may find good opportunities. An
interesting problem with Internet commerce, which may well have spillover
effects outside the realm of the Net, is the relative ease with which consumers
may compare prices of different retailers, resulting in intense price
competition. Note that recent legislation has limited taxation of Internet sales
in the U.S., in a sense attempting to "jump start" this innovation.

Store positioning.
Positioning of retail stores is essential. In general, stores which excel on
a significant dimension seem to perform better--for example, Nordstrom’s
excels through its intense customer service, while Wal-Mart excels through its
efficiency and low prices. (In a course on marketing strategy or retailing, you
will probably discuss the issue of the importance of balanced markets--it
is healthier if different firms have different strategies, so that everyone will
not be competing intensely on the same variables). Stores which fall somewhere
in between--e.g., Sears--tend to do less well since they get "stuck in the
middle" and have to compete against both. Obviously, there is a limit to
how strongly you can move toward one extreme. For example, if Nordstrom were to
double its prices and even double its service, that position would be untenable,
and certain extreme discount stores that offer lower prices than Wal-Mart tend
not to be successful because they are ultimately not satisfactory to consumers.

Public Policy Issues

Throughout the term, we have considered marketing
practices which may harm consumers. Two main issues are (1) deceptive marketing
practices (such as misleading advertising) and (2) the marketing of dangerous or
otherwise harmful products (e.g., tobacco). The following are some ethical
problems that occur in marketing, and the question arises as to which, if any,
kind of government intervention is appropriate:

Marketing
efforts may encourage excess consumption
(e.g., products that consumers cannot afford and do not really need).
Note, however, that there are many gray areas--e.g., cosmetics, video
games, and even something as politically correct as a gourmet coffee
houses. A special case involves marketing to children, whose parents may
be coerced, often out of guilt, to buy questionable items aimed at
children.

Resource
depletion and waste disposal issues associated with the above consumption.
Some European countries have mandated that manufacturers be required to
take back packaging materials for their products.

Deceptive
marketing practices: Products claim
benefits which really do not result from use of the product (as is done by
numerous manufacturers of nutritional supplements); advertising may be
misleading (may not indicate the true cost of a product up front or may
contain "fine print" that the consumer is unlikely to see or
understand)

Products
are unhealthy (e.g., many
children’s foods contain excessive fat)

Government action is often considered, although it
may not always be effective. For example, although the government requires the
use of warning labels on some products, manufacturers will often try to
"water down" the warnings as much as possible. Further, the prevalence
of warning labels today may desensitize consumers since reading all of them
carefully would provide the consumer with information overload.
Another issue is anti-competitive behavior.
Antitrust laws are generally aimed at prohibiting firms from conspiring to
"fix" prices or collectively drop service levels. Antitrust law is,
however, a "thorny" area. Consumers may benefit, for example, as some
less efficient firms are driven out of business, and may benefit from the
efficiencies which may or may not materialize when large firms "gobble
up" smaller ones--a defense used in the Microsoft trial.
Reference: Hawkins, Del I., Roger J. Best,
and Kenneth A. Coney (1998), Consumer Behavior: Building Marketing Strategy,
7th ed., Boston: McGraw Hill.

I
Lars
Perner, Ph.D.

Visiting Assistant Professor

The A. Gary Anderson Graduate School of Management

900 University Avenue

University of California, Riverside

Riverside, CA 92521-0203 ((909) 787-2330

[email protected] http//www.LarsPerner.com

"Birth is nature's way. Adoption is God's way!" (Source unknown)

Hosted by www.Geocities.ws}