1. Introduction

Note, the Brahmanical in the title 'Brahmanical (Vedic) philosophies' refers to Brahman (God) and not the brahmin caste.

Based on the observations and experiences (including the supernatural) of humans during early civilization, the accumulated knowledge was compiled as the Veda which considers the ultimate reality, or the Absolute (Satya), as Brahman (or God), souls and the world (or material Universe). Over time, different philosophical systems developed so that these aspects of reality could be better understood and combined, at least conceptually. Thus the analysis of the world was carried out using the Vaisesika and the Nyaya philosophies with the former looking at the things in minute detail whereas the latter taking a much broader view of things and processes. Similarly, the Samkhya and the Yoga systems deal, respectively, with the theoretical study and the practical aspects involving the field of experience of conscious body. The Mimamsa, on the other hand, consists of the Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) and the Purva Mimamsa which relate, respectively, to God and the acts of service (sacrifice).

Thus, the ultimate reality (the Absolute or Satya) comprises three tattvas or principles: Brahman, soul (souls), and the world (universe of matter). In addition, the last two (soul and the world) are jointly called Creation. Thus, Satya or Absolute comprises essentially Brahman (God) and Creation.

Note that the philosophies relating to Satya or its constituents, and not negating (excluding) Brahman (God), are called Brahmanical darshanas (philosophical systems), e.g. Vaisesika (Atomistic Pluralism), Nyaya (Logicism), Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, and Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta).
Note, there are other Hindu philosophical systems, e.g. the doctrines of Saivism and Saktism, which use the name Siva (Shiva) for God (Brahman or Isvara).

In addition, the Carvaka (or Charvaka) philosophy of Hinduism is a materialist philosophy that tries to explain everything in relation to the world of matter without emphasizing God or soul.

2. Vedanta

In the Vedanta, emphasis is on Lord and not on the lordship. In other words, the Absolute or the Reality is investigated by considering Brahman first and the creation (souls and the world) follows next (and even as attributable to Brahman). The term "Vedanta" means literally "the end of the Veda," or the doctrines set forth in the closing chapters of the Vedas, which are the Upanisads. The views of the Upanisads also constitute "the final aim of the Veda," or the essence of the Vedas. The Vedanta Sutra (or the doctrine of Vedanta) is called Brahm Sutra, because it is an exposition of the doctrine of Brahm (or Brahman), and also Sariraka Sutra, because it deals with the embodiment of the unconditioned self. While in the Purva Mimamsa (or Karma Mimamsa) Jaimini investigates the duties (dharma) enjoined by the Veda, together with the rewards attached thereto, in the Uttara Mimamsa Badarayana describes the philosophico-theological views of the Upanisads. Together, the two form a systematic investigation of the whole Veda. Ref:
http://www.geocities.com/lamberdar/vedanta.html

In Vedanta, the reality (Satya) is investigated by considering Brahman first and then seeing how Creation relates to Him. Depending on relationship between the two (Brahman and Creation), there are different schools of thought, the chief among them are:

(1) Adwaita or Monism: There is only one reality and that is Brahman; Creation is no different from Him.

(2) Visistadwaita or qualified non-dualism: Brahman is indeed real and independent; but Creation is real also, though its reality is utterly dependent on Brahman.

(3) Dwaita or dualism: There is a real duality (distinction) between Brahman and Creation. Ref.:
http://www.geocities.com/lamberdar/vaisnava-philosophies.html

3. Purva Mimamsa philosophy

1. Introduction

Purva Mimamsa deals with the works predicated in the Veda toward a deity (usually external).

The entire Veda, excluding the Upanisads, is said to deal with dharma or acts of duty, of which the chief are sacrifices. Thus Purva Mimamsa is inquiry into or interpretation of the first or the Mantra portion of the Veda, and the Uttara Mimamsa is the inquiry into the later or the Upanisad portion. Note that the performance of sacred rites -- with which Purva Mimamsa deals -- is normally considered the prelude to the pursuit of wisdom leading to Moksa.

The avowed aim of the Purva Mimamsa is to examine the nature of dharma. Its interest is more practical than speculative, and therefore the philosophical speculations found in it are subordinate to the ritualistic purpose. It affirms the reality of the soul and regards it as a permanent being possessing a body, to whom the results of acts accrue.

The most important work in the Purva Mimamsa is the Mimamsa Sutra attributed to Jaimini (fourth century B.C.). It presupposes a long history of Vedic interpretation, since it sums up the general rules (nyayas) which were in use in the earliest times. It describes the different sacrifices and their purposes, theory of apurva as well as some philosophical propositions.

2.Sources of Knowledge

Three pramanas (proofs) of perception, inference and sabda (testimony) are accepted in the Purva Mimamsa. Perception (pratyaksa) is direct apprehension and it proceeds directly from sense-contact. Perception relates to object that exist, i.e. are perceptible by the senses. On the other hand, inference depends on the knowledge of a certain fixed relation to subsist between two things. Thus if one of these things is perceived, by inference the idea about the other thing is cognized. Such a knowledge (cognition) is inferential. Similarly, Vedic Testimony is greatly emphasized according to the Mimamsa, the aim of which is to ascertain the nature of dharma. Dharma is not a physical existent, and so it cannot be apprehended through the senses. The other pramanas are of no use, since they all presuppose the work of perception.

3. The Self

The Vedic injunctions hold out promises of rewards to be enjoyed in another world. They would be pointless if some real self did not survive the destruction of the body. The performer of a sacrifice thus may reap the benefits from his effort in non-corporeal atman and not the body, flesh and blood. The Mimamsakas think that the atman is one with consciousness. Therefore the self is regarded as distinct from the body, the senses and the understanding (buddhi). The self is present even when buddhi (intellect) is absent (non-functional), as in sleep. The self is also not the senses, since it persists even when the sense-organs are destroyed. The body is material, and in all cognitions we are aware of the cogniser as distinct from the body. The elements of the body are not intelligent, and a combination of them cannot give rise to consciousness. The body is a means to an end beyond itself, and so is said to serve the soul which directs it. The facts of memory prove the reality of self. It is admitted that the soul suffers change, but through the changes the soul endures.

4. The Nature of Reality

The Mimamsaka theory of perception assumes the reality of objects, for perception arises only when there is contact with real objects. The universe is real and is independent of the mind, which perceives it. Thus the theory of the phenomenality of the world is not accepted. Note, the real can be described in terms of eight categories: (1) substance (dravya), (2) quality (guna), (3) action (karma), (4) generality (samanya), (5) inherence (paratantrata), (6) force (sakti), (7) similarity (sadrsya), and (8) number (samkhya).

5. Ethics

Dharma is the scheme of right living. Jaimini defines dharma as an ordinance or command. Dharma is what is enjoined, and it leads to happiness. Activities which result in loss or pain (anartha) are not dharma. Thus the lack of observing the commands leads not only to missing the happiness but becoming subject to suffering also.

The ethics of the Purva Mimamasa is founded on revelation. The Vedic injunctions lay down the details of dharma. Good action, according to the Mimamsaka, is what is prescribed by the Veda (including the Upanisads). The smrti texts (documents on traditions or customs) are supposed to have corresponding sruti texts (Vedas). If certain smrti is known to have no matching sruti, it indicates that either the corresponding sruti was lost over time or the particular smrti is not authentic. Moreover, if the smrtis are in conflict with the sruti, the formers are to be disregarded. When it is found out that the smrtis are laid down with a selfish interest, they must be thrown out. Next to the smrtis is the practice of good men or customs. The duties which have no scriptural sanction are explained on principles of utility. If any act is performed in response to one's response to natural instincts, there is no virtue in it. These and other rules (aspects) of Mimamsa are used for the interpretation of the Hindu law, which is based on the rules of the Vedas or sruti (open equally to all, irrespective of the varna, caste or vocation). Note the sruti generally refers to the Vedas (Rig, Yajur and Sam) and the Upanisads (including the Bhagavad Gita). Moreover, the Atharva Veda, the itihaasa (Puranas and epics) and the smrti (including the Manu-smrti or Manu-smriti etc.) are considered as the ancillary literature and therefore should not be confused with the sruti which has a precedence over all the rest.

6. Apurva

Acts are enjoined with a view to their fruits. There is a necessary connection between the act and its result. An act performed today cannot effect a result at some future date unless it gives rise before passing away to some unseen result. Jaimini assumes the existence of such an unseen force, which he calls apurva, which may be regarded either as the imperceptible antecedent of the fruit, or as the after-state of the act. Since sacrifices and the like are laid down for the purpose of definite results to follow after a long time, the deferred fruition of the action is not possible unless it is through the medium of apurva. Apurva is the metaphysical link between work and its result. The Mimamsakas are unwilling to trace the results of actions to God's will, since a uniform cause cannot account for a variety of effects.

7. Moksa

Liberation is defined as "the absolute cessation of the body (or cycle of birth), caused by the disappearance of all dharma and adharma." Liberation thus consists in the total disappearance of dharma and adharma, whose operation is the cause of rebirth. The individual, finding that in samsara (world) pleasures are mixed up with pain, turns his attention to liberation. He tries to avoid the forbidden acts as well as the prescribed ones which lead to some sort of happiness here or hereafter. He undergoes the necessary expiations for exhausting the previously accumulated karma, and gradually, by a true knowledge of the soul aided by contentment and self-control, gets rid of his bodily existence. Mere knowledge cannot give freedom from bondage, which can be attained only by the exhaustion of action. Knowledge prevents further accumulation of merit and demerit. Note that karma, in expectation of reward, leads to further birth.

8. God

The Purva Mimamsa posits a number of (Vedic) deities, representing Brahman, in order that prescribed offerings may be made to them according to different needs and sacrificers (devotees). Though these deities are seen as possessing some sort of reality, the sacrificer is urged also to pay attention to the mantras and look beyond the person of the deity. God or Brahman is basically the creator as well as the apportioner of the fruits. Thus apurva in this regard simply appears to be the principle of karma which is taken into account by God in the creation of the world.

In the Purva Mimamsa the emphasis is on the ethical side. The ultimate reality of the world is looked upon as the constant principle of karma. God is righteousness or dharma. The contents of dharma are embodied in the Vedas, and the Vedas reveal the mind of God. While the sacrificial works may be considered as the special causes of bliss, God is the general cause. Ref.:
http://www.geocities.com/lamberdar/purva_mimamsa.html

4. Field of Experience: Samkhya, Yoga and the Yoga philosophy

1. Introduction

In the Mimamsas (the Purva Mimamsa and the Vedanta) liberation and salvation are attainable by identifying and achieving a close relationship (or unity) of soul with Brahman. In the Samkhya and the Yoga, on the other hand, salvation is found in recognizing and practicing the separateness of the imperishable purusa (soul) from the perishable prakrti (body). Thus while the Samkhya discusses ways to identify this disunion between purusa and prakrti, the Yoga teaches how to use different elements of prakrti (e.g. the chitta or citta) to achieve this disunion.

Note, the three elements or constituents of the ultimate realty or Satya are thus Brahman, purusa and prakrti. The prakrti (matter or body) in the Samkhya comprises twenty-four tattvas (principles): Mahat (primitive matter); Buddhi (intellect); Ahamkara (self-sense or ego); five tanmatras (organs) relating to sound, touch, smell, form or color, taste; Manas (mind); five senses of hearing, touching, smelling, seeing, tasting; five work organs (karmendriyan) for food and air intake, working, walking, excrement, reproducing; and five gross elements of ether, air, light, water and earth. The twenty-fifth tattva belongs to the purusa (soul), and the tewnty-sixth to Brahman. In addition, prakrti and purusa in a jiva (being) are tied to each other through three gunas (qualities or ropes) of prakrti, namely Sattva (light or purity), Rajas (fire or passion)and Tamas (darkness or ignorance).

2. The Samkhya and the Yoga

In the Gita, the Samkhya (e.g. in Ch. 13 & 14) is generally referred to as the Jnana (or Gyan) yoga and the corresponding path to salvation through Sanyasa (Surrender,or detachment with bodily activities), and the Yoga (e.g. in Ch. 6) also is identified as Karma yoga (or yoga of action) and the path to salvation through it as Tyaga (Renunciation – of the fruits of action). In addition, the jiva (living being) comprises soul and the body, where body consists of five basic constituents (ether or space, air, light, water and earth) and three evolved constituents (intellect, ego and mind); and, in the Yoga, intellect, ego and mind jointly are referred to as the citta (or chitta).

The Upanisads assume the Yoga practice (philosophy) in the sense of a conscious inward search or striving after a true knowledge of reality. The securing of many physical and mental powers, which are not found ordinarily, by means of discipline, and the restraint of bodily and mental activities helps to gain release from suffering. A preliminary Yogic experience and ecstasy by the Munis seems to be mentioned in the Rig Veda (10:136:2-5). Both the Vedas and the Upanisads regard tapas and austerities as virtues productive of great power. Moreover, the Upanisads which speak of the Samkhya theories refer to yoga practices as well. The Yogatattva Upanisad speaks of four kinds of Yoga: (1) Mantra-yoga (based on faith-healing and involves cure by mantras), (2) Laya-yoga (focusing, lyrically, melodies, etc.), (3) Hatha-yoga (exercises etc.); and (4) Raja-yoga (meditation etc.). Yoga basically involves the purification of the body, mind and soul, and preparing them for the beatific vision.

Yoga is a methodical effort to attain perfection, through the control of the different elements of human nature, physical and psychical. The word Yoga is used in a variety of senses. It may simply mean "method." It is often used in the sense of yoking. In the Upanisads and the Bhagavadgita, the soul (divine and eternal part of the being) in the worldly and the sinful condition is said to live separate and estranged from the supreme soul. The root of all sin and suffering is this separation, disunion and estrangement. To be rid of sorrow and sin, one must, according to Yoga philosophy, attain spiritual unification, the consciousness of two in one, or Yoga.

According to Patanjali (second century B.C.), Yoga simply means the effort to bring this union. Thus Yoga, the effort, also signifies exertion, strenuous endeavor, and the restraint of the senses and the mind. The physical body, the active will and the understanding mind are to be brought under control. When this condition is arrived at through certain practices resulting in the increased vitality, prolonged youth and longevity, these are to be employed in the interest of spiritual freedom (i.e. separation between purusa and prakrti). The main interest of Patanjali is the practical motive, rather than metaphysical theorizing, of showing the way to attain salvation by disciplined activity.

The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali is one of the earliest complete texts on the Yoga system and it is divided into four parts. The first part explores the nature and aim of samadhi, or meditative absorption (samadhipada), the second explains the means of attaining this end (sadhanapada), the third describes the supernatural powers that can be attained through the Yoga practice (vibhutipada), and the fourth sets forth the nature of liberation (kaivalyapada). Important contributors to Yoga also include Vatsyayana, Bhoja, Vijnanabhiksu and Vacaspati et al.

In the early works (the Mahabharata etc.) the Yoga principles appear along with the Samkhya ideas. The twenty-five principles (tattvas) of the Samkhya are accepted by the Yoga. The universe is uncreated and eternal. It undergoes changes. In its noumenal state it is called prakrti, which is associated with the gunas, and is always the same. There are countless individual souls which animate living beings and are by nature pure, eternal and immutable. But, through the association with the universe, they become indirectly the experiencers of joys and sorrows, and assume innumerable embodied forms in the course of samsara (world).

Yoga does not recognize ahamkara and manas as separate from budhhi (intellect), and brings these three internal organs of Samkhya under citta (or chitta). It also looks upon the sense-organs as material in character, and so finds no need for a subtle body.

While, in the Samkhya, the creation occurs due to the sudden imbalance (non-equilibrium) of gunas of prakrti (in Mahat state or as the subtle matter), the Yoga accounts for creation by the two agencies of God and avidya. Through the force of the latter, the energy of prakrti transforms itself into modifications as the mental and the material world, while God, though remaining outside the vale of prakrti, removes the obstructions offered by the latter. Avidya is unintelligent and so is not conscious of the desires of the innumerable purusas; God is the intelligence adjusting the modifications of prakrti to the ends of purusas. The jiva (embodied soul) is found to be involved in matter, and this constitutes his fall from his purity and innocence. The individual in the Yoga, is not so much at the mercy of prakrti as in the Samkhya. He has greater freedom, and, with the help of God, he can effect his deliverance. As in the Samkhya, so in the Yoga, the round of rebirths, with its many pains, is that which is to be escaped from. The conjunction of pradhana (the first cause or the subtle matter) and the self is the cause of this samsara; the destruction of this conjunction is the escape (freedom), and perfect insight (or jnana) is the means of escape. The self is the seer and pradhana is the object of knowledge, and their conjunction is the cause of samsara.

The end of liberation is the isolation of purusa from prakrti, to be attained by discrimination between the two. While the Samkhya holds that knowledge is the means of liberation, the Yoga insists on the methods of concentration and active striving. The aim of the Yoga is to free the individual from the clutches of matter. The highest form of matter is citta, and the Yoga lays down the course by which a man can free himself from the fetters of citta. By withdrawing the citta from its natural functions, one overcomes the pain of the world and escapes from samsara.

3. Psychology

Citta is the first product of prakrti and includes intellect, self-consciousness or ego, and mind. It is subject to the three gunas, and undergoes various modifications according to the predominance of the gunas. It is essentially unconscious, though it becomes conscious by the reflection of the self which abides by it. Citta, including the mind, undergoes modifications when it is affected by the objects through the senses. The consciousness of purusa reflected in it leads to the impression that it is the experiencer. Citta is really the spectacle of which the self is by reflection the spectator. Citta, as cause, is all pervading like akasa, and there are as many cittas as there are purusas, since each purusa has a citta connected with it. Yoga does not admit a separate subtle body in which the citta is encased. It is the aim of the Yoga discipline to turn back the citta to its original status of all-pervading karana-citta, by the suppression of rajas and tamas. The Yogin acquires omniscience when all-pervading state of citta is restored. When it becomes as pure as the purusa itself, the latter is liberated. It is by means of citta that the self (purusa) becomes aware of objects and enters into relation with the world. Citta exists for the sake of the purusa, who is deeper than thought, feeling and will. It is the reflection of the self acting on it that makes it perceive what is presented to it, because it cannot itself perceive what it sees due to its own unconscious nature. Getting knowledge about an object relates to the modification in the citta, and since citta can undergo only one modification at a time, the self knows only one object at a time. Similarly, two different ideas can not arise simultaneously. Impressions produced in the citta leave behind certain residues, which are the causes of interests and desires, new births and further experiences.

The functionings of citta produce potencies, which, in their turn, cause potencies; so the wheel of samsara goes on perpetually. From these relations passions and desires arise, and the sense of personality is produced. Life in samsara is the outcome of desires and passions. Deliverance consists in severing the relation of self and citta. The purusa in true nature is merely the spectator of the mind's activity. When the mind is active, the self seems to experience various conditions, and when mind becomes calm in meditation the self abides in its true form.

Mind is an arena of conflicting forces, which require to be subdued to some unity. There are some desires that seek satisfaction, some vital urges of life, such as those of self-preservation and self-reproduction, which refuse to be easily controlled. The obstacles to concentration are said to be the different forms of misconception (representing the general attitude of life unfavorable to concentration), namely, ignorance (avidya), egoism (asmita), attachment (raga), aversion (dvesa), and clinging to life (abhinivesa). Others, or those obstructing the process of concentration, are sickness, languor, doubt, heedlessness, laziness, worldliness, erroneous perception, and failure to attain concentration and instability in it when attained.

4. The Pramanas (proofs) and the Sources of Knowledge

Perception, inference and scripture are accepted as the three means of knowledge. When the citta is affected by some external object, through the sense-organs, there is perception. The mental modification is directly related to the object. The reality of external objects is accepted by the Yoga. When an object changes into other, only its form is modified, and when all forms are destroyed, the object ultimately reverts to its primary or noumenal state. The forms are, however, not phantasmal. Sensations occur whenever there are sensible objects exciting the senses. It is, however, true that though the presented object is the same, the resulting sensations may be different. For the citta receives the impressions of the presented objects under the influence of one or other of the three gunas.

Inference is the mental modification through which the generic nature of objects is cognized. The cognition of invariable conjunction is the basis of inference. Of two things invariably connected with each other, the perception of one establishes the existence of the other.

Scripture or testimony relates to the knowledge of an object seen or inferred by a trustworthy person and communicated to others by means of words.

5. Art of Yoga (or Living)

The reality of the self is to be found not by means of an objective use of the mind, but by a suppression of its activities and penetration beneath the mental strata with which one's ordinary life and activity conceal his diviner nature. Though the seed of spirit is present in everyone, it is not realized by a person's consciousness which is too busily engaged with other things. One must undergo a severe discipline before he can achieve the redirection of his consciousness. The Yoga philosophy urges that the necessary inhibition of mental states is brought about by practice and conquest of desire. While the latter is the result of a life of virtue, the former refers to the effort towards steadiness of thought, which is gained by purificatory action, continence, knowledge and faith. Vairagya or passionlessness is the consciousness of mastery possessed by one who has rid himself of thirst for seen or revealed objects. Such a one is supremely indifferent to the pleasures of heaven or of earth. In the highest form of Vairagya, where the discernment of the self arises, there is no danger of any subjection to the desire for objects or their qualities. This leads to the ultimate freedom, while the lower form of vairagya, which has a trace of rajas (and so pravrtti) in it, results in the condition of absorption in prakrti.

The human organism consists of the physical body, the vital dynamism, the psychic principles, and the purusa. The purusa is hidden behind veils of corruptible flesh and restless mind, all of which offer hindrances to the method of Yoga. The close connection of body and mind is associated with pain, despondency, unsteadiness of the body, and other distractions. Though physical health is not the end of human life, it is still one of its essential conditions. Moreover, the body is the instrument for the expression of spiritual life. So, instead of renouncing the material basis, the Yoga accepts it as part of the spiritual problem. To overcome the hindrances, the Yoga proposes the eightfold method, consisting of yama ( abstention), niyama (observance), asana (posture), pranayama (regulation of breath), pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses), dhyana (fixed attention), dharana (contemplation), and samadhi (concentration). The last three are direct or internal (antaranga) aids, while the first five are indirect or external (bahiranga). Although all these were originally included in one Yoga scheme, later these were classified as Karma yoga (the system of salvation by work), Bhakti yoga (perfection through devotion to God), Jnana yoga (perfection through wisdom), Raja yoga (training of the mind and its psychic powers) and Hatha yoga ( methods of bodily control, breath regulation and mantra).

The Yoga has developed a system of physiology which relates to (1) nadis (or infinitely small nerves) which traverse the body (more than 700 million in number), (2) psychic centers or cakras, and (3) a hidden energy known as kundalini, said to reside at the base of the spine, which, when aroused, stimulates the cakras to activity. The human body has two main parts, the upper and the lower. The center of the body, in human beings especially, lies at the base of the cerebro-spinal column, which supports and controls the two parts of the body. The nerves and ganglionic masses of nervous matter are arranged in two great systems, the sympathetic and the cerebro-spinal. The brain and the spinal cord contained within the bony cavity of the skull and the spinal column are the great centers of the cerebro-spinal system. Brahmadanda or Merudanda of Hindu physiology is the spinal column. It is the seat of the nadisusumna, which extends from the muladhara, or root support at the base of the vertebral column to the Sahasrara lying within the cerebral region. The other four cakras (plexuses) are Svadhisthana, Manipura, Anahata and Visudha. The spinal column contains three yoganadis of special significance, namely, ida, pingala and susumna. The last is the chief of them. To the right of it pingala, and to its left ida. This nadi has six subtle centers called padmas or cakras (invisible to the senses) that could be experienced through the eyes of Yoga.

As explained in the following, ethical preparation (yama and niyama), bodily posture (asana), breath-control (pranayama), and abstraction of the senses from their natural functions (pratyhara) are considered as accessories to the Yoga, and these are not themselves elements in it.

6. Accessories to the Yoga

Ethical preparation includes yama and niyama (abstentions and observances) which lay stress on the ethical preparation necessary for the practice of Yoga. One should practice ahimsa (or non-violence), truthfulness, honesty, continence and non-acceptance of gifts. Thus one should abstain from inflicting of injury, from falsehood, theft, incontinence and avarice. The chief of all these is the non-violence, in which all other virtues are rooted. Ahimsa -- not merely non-violence but non-hatred (vairatyagah) -- is interpreted broadly as abstinence from malice towards all living creatures in every way and all the time. The cultivation of friendliness, sympathy, cheerfulness and imperturbability with regard to things (pleasant and painful, good and bad) produces serenity of mind. One must be free from jealousy and not be callous to the suffering of others. No exceptions are allowed to these (yama) principles, which are absolute in their character. The observances (niyama) are optional -- but are also to be followed regularly in Yoga practice -- and comprise purification (external and internal), contentment, austerity (tapas), and devotion to God. A practice of yama and niyama favors the development of vairagya (passionlessness or freedom from desire) either for the things of the world or the pleasures of heaven. Note that the stream of mind flows in both directions towards good and towards evil. When it makes for freedom and knowledge, it is said to be flowing towards the good; and when it is borne to the whirlpool of existence, downward towards non-discrimination (or lack of judgment), it is then flowing unto evil.

Discipline of the body according to the Yoga is realizing that the body has a dignity of its own, as much as the mind. Asna, or posture, is a physical help to concentration. To help in meditation, the posture must be firm, pleasant and easy. Similarly, food (including drinks) should be chosen carefully so as not to set the nerves on edge, driving them into fever or stupor. Note that if intellectual life and moral activity are the true ends of man, therefore the bodily needs should be subordinated to them. Hatha Yoga aims at perfecting the bodily instrument, freeing it from its liability to fatigue and arresting its tendency to decay and age. Yoga says that the perfection of body consists in beauty, grace, strength and adamantine hardness.

Breath-control results in the serenity of mind which is attainable by the cultivation of virtues or regulation of breath. Breath-control is regarded as a steadying influence on the mind, and plays an important part in Hatha Yoga, where it is esteemed for its great efficiency in producing occult powers. Respiratory exercises are highly beneficial to health.

Sense-Control: Pratyhara, or the withdrawal of the senses from their natural outward functioning, answers to the process of introversion in psychology. The mind is to be resolutely shut against all impressions from outside. The discipline requires to drive away the vagrant impulses and insistent thoughts.

7. Contemplation

Contemplation is for subduing the mind. To the roving, restless mind of man the yoga says that the truth can be known by a persistent withdrawal of consciousness from outward acts as well as inward changes. Dharana is fixing the mind (citta) in a particular spot. It is steadfastness of mind. In normal life ideas come and go, but do not stay long. Concentration is normally sustained at its fullest for a very short time only. But dhyana corresponds to the resulting state of an even current of thought undisturbed by others. It is meditation. Dhyana culminates in samadhi, where the sense of identity is lost; body and mind become dead to all external impressions, and only the object of meditation, whatever it be, remains shining out. When all effort is directed to a single object, the resulting state is called samyama.

8. Samadhi or Concentration

Samadhi or Concentration is the name of the condition to be passed through before reaching deliverance. Yoga insists on attaining freedom through samadhi (or Yogah samadhih), which is the ecstatic condition in which the connection with the outer world is broken. It is the goal of Yoga discipline, since it lifts the soul from the temporal, conditioned, changing existence into a simple, eternal and perfect life. The purusa regains through it the eternal status. The idea of samadhi may have developed out of the Upanisad doctrine that compares the realization of the Absolute or freedom from the things of empirical life to the deep dreamless sleep. There are degrees of concentration or samadhi; samprajnata or conscious, and asamprajnata or superconscious. In the former the mind remains conscious of the object. That state where the citta is single in intent and fully illumines a distinct and real object, removes the afflictions and slackens the bonds of karma, and has for its goal the restraint of all modifications, is called sam-prajnata-samadhi. In it there is a union between the knower and the known, in which the knower may be said to know the object simply because he is it. The thought and the object of thought are the same.

Samadhi is not a simple experience uniform as long as it lasts. On the contrary, it is a succession of mental states which grow more and more simple until they end in unconsciousness. Asamprajnata samadhi is concentration where there is no mental mode (citta-vrtti), though the latent impressions may remain. In samprajnata samadhi there is a clear consciousness of the object reflected upon as distinct from the subject, whereas this distinction disappears in the asamprajnata.

Until a person reaches the stage of samadhi his effort is the negative one of discriminating purusa from prakrti. When the distinction is realized, the positive nature of spirit manifests itself. This manifestation of the nature of spirit on its own plane, above all confusion with prakrti, is the highest form of samadhi. In this superconscious samadhi the seer abides in himself. All possibility of confusion between the self and the activity of citta ceases. It is the mystical state which occurs as a sequel to intense concentration. Samadhi is a condition which few can attain and almost none can possess long, since it is broken upon by the calls of life. So it is said that final liberation is not possible until the body is cast off.

In Yoga, every soul is potentially divine, and its divinity is manifested when nature, external and internal, is controlled (such as during samadhi, etc.). The visions and voices (to a person) are, in Yoga, regarded as the revelations of the creative spirit in man. Whether they are authentic or not is to be judged by the light of reason.

9. Freedom

Freedom in the Yoga is kaivalya, or absolute independence. It is not a mere negation, but the eternal life of the purusa when it is freed from the fetters of prakrti. It is defined as the relapse of qualities (guna) in view of the absence of the purpose of the self or the energy of intelligence grounded in itself. The purusa is in his true form (svarupa). The cause of all desire is ignorance of the true nature of things. The effect of this ignorance is the body, its support is citta, and its object is worldly enjoyment. So long as avidya remains, the individual does not shake off his burden. Avidya can be removed by discriminative knowledge (viveka-khyati). When the individual acquires knowledge, all false notions disappear. The self is purified and remains untouched by the conditions of citta. The gunas retire to rest and the self abides in its own essence.

The goal of jiva is detachment and independence. Salvation is the realization of the true nature of the self which is obscured by many impurities. They can be got rid of only by effort and discipline. One must subdue the inner turmoil of emotion and passion. The Yoga also recognizes that not everyone is capable of the discipline it insists on.

A Yogi who has attained the powers of samadhi sets about destroying karma, which is of three kinds: (1) deeds done in the past whose consequences have begun to operate in the present life (prarabdha); (2) those done in the past whose consequences have to be expiated in some future life or the stored (samcita) karma; and (3) those produced in the present life which require to be expiated in the present life or in some future one (agami). The last can be checked through devotion to God and social service. The ripe karmas are exhausted in this life and the unripe ones demand a future life.

10. Karma

So long as avidya is not overcome, there will be life in samsara. The law of karma is assumed valid, and a person's life and its character and length, are all determined by it. Though one does not remember his past lives, he can infer particulars about them from the tendencies of the present; and these tendencies will cease to exist on the disappearance of their cause (hetu), motive (phala), substratum (asraya), and object (alambana). The root cause is avidya, though there may be other proximate causes. The motive refers to the purpose with reference to which any conation becomes operative in the present; citta is the substratum of the residual potencies, and the object is that which excites the potencies.

11. Supernatural Powers

The scriptures speak of men who, through dint of hard tapas, acquired marvelous powers. The acquisition of these powers is subordinated to the chief end of samadhi in the Yoga system. Though the highest goal may be attained, the lower stages are not without their value either. Each stage brings its own reward. Control of the body through postures results in an indifference to the extreme heat and cold. Similarly one obtains the intuitive knowledge of whatever he concentrates on. Samyama, or concentration, is the means by which a person acquires knowledge of supersensuous objects. Through it he can reach the great light of wisdom. By means of constraint on friendliness, compassion and joy, these qualities increase. Similarly, concentration on muscular powers leads to a giant's strength. Heightened powers of the senses, by which the yogin can see and hear at a distance, follow as a result of concentration. According to Patanjali, he who discerns the distinction between the self and objective existence gains authority over all states of existence and omniscience.

These supernatural powers are the byproducts of the higher life (samadhi) and should not be considered as the end in themselves or as interfering with the laws of nature. The world open to the senses is not the whole world of nature. What appears to be a contravention of the principles of the physical world is only a supplementing of it by the principles of another part of the cosmic order. The world beyond the physical has its own science and laws. Note that the powers and perfections (siddhis), relating to the world beyond the physical one, are attainable through birth, samadhi (concentration), and tapas (austerities), etc.

12. God

The omniscient God is one of the aids to Yoga. God is not only the object of meditation, but is also said to help realize the goal by removal of obstacles. A personal God or Isvara serves the practical purpose. It is said that God is the guide of the evolution of non-intelligent prakrti to serve purusa. God is also seen as a special kind of self, untouched by the taint of imperfection and above the law of karma. Being free from all entanglements in worldly existence, He lives in eternal bliss, without merit or demerit, unaffected by the weight of suffering with which living beings are burdened. God is the omniscient and therefore the teacher of truth, and finds an echo in the heart of great thinkers and rsis. He is unlimited by time, all-merciful, and though he has no desires to satisfy, yet, for the sake of those in the samsara, helps in the development of the scriptures. His sattva nature of perfect quality, which is devoid of any imperfection due to rajas or tamas, is the means of his self-expression and it is completely under his control.

God is ever free, and therefore cannot be confused with either the freed souls who were once bound, or those absorbed in prakrti (prakrtilayas) who may incur bondage in the future. Unlike the liberated souls, who have no further relation with the world, God is everlastingly in connection with it. It is assumed that God stands in an eternal and indissoluble connection with the purest side of matter, sattva, and therefore He is for ever endowed with supreme power, wisdom and goodness. He in his mercy enters into the scene of change by assuming the quality of sattva. Since he does so voluntarily for the sake of the struggling purusas, he is not bound by the law of karma. At the great dissolution, when prakrti relapses into its unmanifested state, this assumed form is set aside, though it is taken up again at the next development. As an individual resolves overnight to wake up at a certain hour next morning and does so through the force of the impression left behind by his determination, even so Isvara resolves to resume the character of the great teacher when prakrti begins a fresh evolution and the purusas emerge. The mystic syllable "Aum" (or "Om") represents God, and by meditating on it the mind rests in the true vision of God.

Incidentally, the goal of human aspiration is not union with God, but the absolute separation of purusa from prakrti leading to liberation. By bhakti or disinterested devotion, a man becomes eligible for grace of God. Isvara facilitates the attainment of liberation, but does not directly grant it. The reality of God is seen in the purified life of man. Ref.:
http://www.geocities.com/lamberdar/yoga.html

5. world (universe of matter): Vaisesika (the philosophy of Atomistic Pluralism) & Nyaya (Logicism)

1. Introduction

The origins of the Vaisesika philosophy, involving the atomism and atomic theory etc., are found in rudimentary form in the Vedas. As the humans progressed and became generally aware of their surroundings, they began to inquire into the natural phenomena using reason, which led to the establishment of scientific methods and theories for investigating the physical world. For example, as indicated in the Rig Veda (8/61/16; 8/90/13), they knew that the ordinary light had seven constituents of different colors indicating that the white sunlight itself was composed of lower components. Similarly, their ideas about the total absence of existence and non-existence prior to the creation (Rig Veda: 10/129/1), and the existence arising from the non-existence (Rig Veda: 10/72/2-3) indicate the profoundness of their thought even during the earliest times. It seems thus that they had understood the presence of building blocks (units), even as invisible or belonging to different (lower) categories, in constituting the natural objects.

The Vaisesika system takes its name from visesa, or particularity. The philosophies of Vaisesika (or Atomism) and Nyaya (or Logicism) deal with the analysis of the world (matter): the former (Vaisesika) concentrating on the particulars (in minute sense) while the latter (Nyaya) looking at the reality in the broader (more general) sense and as relating to the processes. Both the systems agree in their essential principles, such as the nature and qualities of the self and the atomic theory of the universe, yet the classification and characterization of the categories and the development of the atomic theory give to the Vaisesika its distinct interest and value. It basically views the world as cosmologically atomistic (matter built from a variety of atoms) and ontologically pluralistic (multiplicity of souls). The Vaisesika insists that it is in the particulars of the world, pre-eminently in the particular imperceptible souls and atoms that true individuality is to be found. Though the particular selves have cosmic and social relations, through which alone they can realize themselves, yet they retain their selfhood in spite of these relations. Thus its standpoint is more scientific than speculative, and more analytic than synthetic. The Vaisesika basically uses the bottom-up approach in the study of physical reality through its constituents (building blocks) and their characteristics.

Since the Vaisesika preceded the Nyaya system, the Nyaya literatures (e.g. Sutra of Gautama and the Bhasya of Vatsayana etc.) are considerably influenced by it. The atomic theory as well as the classification of substances and the acceptance of the two means of knowledge strongly suggests that the Vaisesika is at least as old as the time of Buddha and Mahavira (sixth-fifth century B.C.). The first systematic exposition of the Vaisesika philosophy (known also as Aulukya Darsana) is found in the Vaisesika Sutra of Kanada. This work is divided into ten books. Book I discusses the five categories of substance, quality, action, generality and particularity. Book II deals with the different substances, excepting soul and mind, which, along with the objects of the senses and the nature of inference, are treated in Book III. The atomic structure of the universe is the central topic of Book IV. Book V is devoted to a discussion of the nature and kinds of action, while ethical problems are considered in Book VI. Book VII discusses the questions of quality, self and inherence. Books VIII, IX and X are mainly logical, and treat the problems of perception, inference and causality. In addition to Kanada, contributors to the Vaisesika also include Prasastapada, Candra and Sridhara et al.

2. Theory of Knowledge

The logic of the Vaisesika differs only slightly from the Nyaya logic. Knowledge, which is the problem of logic, assumes various forms, since its objects are endless. Four kinds of valid knowledge are admitted, which are perception (pratyaksa), inference (laingika), remembrance (smrti), and intuitive knowledge (arsajnana). Perception enables a person to apprehend substances, qualities and actions. Gross substances, which are made up of parts, are within the reach of perception, while atoms and dyads are not. The Vaisesika admits yogic perception, by which the perpetual cognition of the soul (atma-pratyaksa) arises.

The Vaisesika brings comparison (upamana), tradition (aitihya), and verbal Knowledge (sabda) under inference. The validity of scriptural statements is an inference from the authoritative character of the speakers. While the Nyaya bases the validity of the Vedas on the ground of the direct communication from seers who had realized the eternal truths and laws, the Vaisesika infers it from the unimpeachable veracity of the inspired seers. The scriptures give real knowledge and not mere speculation. It is the knowledge of things as they are, and in this sense has no beginning, though it is always directly known and realized by some beings in its entirety and by others in part. Abler minds realized the truths and communicated them to later generations. The Vedas, as the collection of the sentences, presuppose intelligent authors. The authoritativeness of the Veda follows from its being the source of knowledge (from intelligent authors) which is eternal (Sanatana) or as having stood the test of time. Thus the Vedas are also eternal (or Sanatana) and as inspired by God or as the word of God. The meanings of the words and sentences must be understood before a person gains knowledge from them. Since the understanding of meanings depends on the recognition of universal concomitance, verbal knowledge is therefore a case of inference. Cesta (gesture), arthapatti (implication), sambhava (inclusion), and abhava (negation) are all brought under inference. Smrti (remembrance) is given an independent place. Arsajnana is the insight of seers. If remembrance is ignored, since it only reproduces what has already been experienced, and if intuitive wisdom (of seers and others) is brought under perception, then, according to the Vaisesika, there are only two sources of knowledge -- intuition (perception) and inference.

Four varieties of invalid knowledge are mentioned, which are samsaya (doubt), viparyaya (misconception), anadhyavasaya (indefinite cognition), and svapna (dream). Sivaditya reduces these four to two, Doubt and Error, and brings under the former (i.e. doubt) conjecture, indeterminate knowledge and indirect reasoning. Search for truth or correct knowledge involves verification of information (real or otherwise) through the minimization and elimination of Doubt or error.

3. Padartha and its Categories

The Vaisesika presupposes the deliverance of the empirical consciousness, which deals first and last with real and separate things. The simplest and the widest spread of the characters of reality is that of things and relations between them. As soon as one looks outside, he sees before him a material world with its different things and arrangements, on which thought can exercise itself; and when he looks within he finds a non-material one with its terms and relations. Sound philosophy requires a person to confine his attention to the things of experience, the objects of knowledge, and accept only such hypotheses as are found to be indispensable for the explanation of the order of experience. In deriving towards an accurate philosophy, the results of the Vaisesika analysis are found set forth in the doctrine of the padarthas.

Padartha means literally the meaning of a word. A padartha is an object which can be thought (artha) and named (pada). All things which exist, which can be cognized and named, in short, all objects of experience, and not merely the things of the physical world, are padarthas. The Vaisesika padarthas (categories) include not only things predicable of another, but also subjects capable of having things predicated of them. The intimate relationship between name and thing is recognized in the Vaisesika. The Vaisesika originally had adopted a sixfold classification of padarthas into substance (dravya), quality (guna), activity (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa), and inherence (samavaya), to which a seventh non-existence (abhava) was added later.

The inclusion of non-existence under padarthas suggests the transformation of an ontological into an epistemological scheme. A belief is positive or negative, and not a thing which exists. In its initial stages, the Vaisesika endeavored to determine the general characteristics which apply to existence as a whole, but soon turned its attention to the nature of beliefs and inquired what sort of beliefs were true and what not. That something is, that something exists, is the first proposition of the Vaisesika philosophy. But nothing can simply be. So one must push ahead and assert that a thing is because it possesses certain properties besides mere existence. Whatever exists does so because it has certain qualities. Substances exist and have qualities. There are two kinds of qualities, those which reside in a plurality of objects and those which are confined to individuals. The former are general qualities (samanya), while the latter are distinguished as permanent (guna) and transitory (karma). Inherence is a special kind of relation.

The first three categories of substance, quality and action possess a real objective existence. They are called artha and it is possible to have an intuition of them, even such as during the yogic insight. The others, generality, particularity and inherence, at least, are products of intellectual discrimination. They are logical categories possessing timelessness and non-causal character. Though they are products of abstraction, they are regarded as more real than the things from which they are abstracted.

Every substance has its unique essence (visesa), its qualities (guna), and its modes of behavior (karma). Everything real is either a substance or attribute of it. The attributes are dependent aspects of reality incapable of existing on their own account, and they imply a more ultimate form of living substance, to which they belong.

3.1 Substance

For the Vaisesika, the category of substance is the most important against the idealistic systems. Substance denotes the feature of the self-subsistence of things. What is vaguely called being is nothing more than a series of things variously conditioned in time and space and distinguished from one another by different properties. Reality presents us with substances marked by the possession of qualities and parts. In other words, a substance is the basis of qualities, actual or potential, present or future. Similarly, the qualities of a substance are to be predicated and not qualities of qualities. Nor can it be said that one quality be predicated of a group of qualities.

The Vaisesika theory of the soul is practically identical with that of the Nyaya, though a direct perception of the self where the self is both the perceiver and the perceived is not admitted. Comparison in this case does not help. Agama (revelation) and inference are helpful sources of knowledge regarding this. The existence of the self is inferred from the fact that consciousness cannot be a property of the body, sense-organs or the manas. In addition to the qualities of pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition and knowledge, evidence for the existence of the self includes the facts of expiration and inspiration, the closing and opening of the eyelids, the healing of bodily injuries, the movement of the mind and the affections of the senses.

Plurality of souls is inferred from the differences in status and the variety of conditions. Each soul undergoes the consequences of its own deeds. It remains one throughout the series of its experiences. The freed souls are conceived as eternally existing with specific differences. Though each soul is supposed to be distinguished by a peculiarity (visesa), it is impossible for people to know what it is. The differences among souls are due to their connections with bodies. Individuality of a soul is also derived due to its connection with manas. A distinction is made between the individual soul and the supreme soul, jiva and Isvara. The two are similar but not identical.

Matter, commonly occurring, is a mixture of five elements or substances (earth, water, light, air and akasa), containing one or the other in a predominant degree. The five phenomenal products (bhutas) are the five states of matter, solid (earth), liquid (water), gaseous (air), luminous (light), etheric (akasa). The earth possesses the four qualities of smell, taste, color and tangibility; water the three qualities of taste, color and tangibility; light the two of color and tangibility; and while air has the quality of tangibility, akasa has the quality of sound. The predominant quality of earth is smell even though it has other qualities as well. Similarly, the special qualities of water, light and air, respectively, are taste, luminosity and temperature. Things made of earth are of three kinds: bodies, sense-organs and objects of perception. The ultimate constituents of the concrete things of earth, air, light and water are called atoms.

3.2 Quality

While substance is capable of existing independently by itself, quality or guna cannot so exist. It abides in substance and has itself no qualities. The Vaisesika recognizes the following twenty-four qualities (including both mental and material properties): color (rupa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), touch (sparsa), number (samkhya), size (parimana), individuality (prthaktva), conjunction (samyoga), disjunction (vibhaga), priority (paratva), posterity (aparatva), knowledge (buddhi), pleasure (sukha), pain (dukha), desire (iccha), aversion (dvesa), effort (prayatna), heaviness (gurutva), fluidity (dravatva), viscidity (sneha), merit (dharma), demerit (adharma), sound (sabda), and faculty (samskara). The last seven (heaviness through faculty) belong mainly to atomic substances.

The qualities that belong to eternal substances are called eternal, and those of transient ones non-eternal. Those that subsist in two or more substances are said to be general, while those residing only in one substance are said to be specific. Thus color, taste, smell, touch, viscidity, natural fluidity, knowledge, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, effort, merit, demerit, faculty and sound are special qualities which help to distinguish objects possessing them from others. Qualities like number, dimension, individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posterity, heaviness, caused fluidity, and velocity are general qualities belonging to substances in general, and are notional in their character.

3.3 Karma or Activity

Karma, or movement, is regarded as an irreducible element of the universe. It is neither substance nor quality, but an independent category itself. All movements belong to the substances as much as their qualities. Unlike a quality of substance, its activity is a transitory one. Thus the heaviness of the body is a quality, while its falling is an accident. Qualities which continue to exist are called guna, while those that cease to exist are called karma. Karma in all its forms is transient, and comes to an end either by a subsequent conjunction or destruction of its basic substance. Akasa, time, space, soul -- though substances -- are devoid of action, since they are incorporeal.

3.4 Samanya or Generality

The idea of samanya is motivated by the desire to distinguish the unchanging from the changing. A property residing in many things is called samanya (or general). If the property is regarded as distinguishing those things from others, it is called visesa (or particular). Generality is regarded as the eternal, one, and residing in many things belonging to the group of substance, quality or action. Kanada suggests that generality and particularity are relative to thought, intellectual devices by which the variety of phenomena are classified. Thus jarness is samanya (or generality) when it is regarded as residing in many objects, and visesa (or particularity) when used to distinguish jars from other things. Similarly, conjunction and duality are intimately related to many things, but are not eternal, and therefore cannot be regarded as samanya. Akasa, though eternal, is not related to many things. Likewise particularity is not samanya, since then it would lose its nature and become confused with the latter.

3.5 Visesa or Particularity

By means of visesa (or particularity) one is able to perceive things as different from one another. It is the basis of exclusion. Whatever is individual is unique and single. Kanada makes particularity as much dependent on thought as generality. Prasastapada makes it an independent reality residing in eternal substances distinguishing them from one another. Empirical objects are distinguished by means of the parts of which they are composed. And if is seen, in reality or during analysis, that a group of simple substances have no parts to help in their distinguishing from one another, then it must be assumed that each simple substance has a quality, which makes it distinct from all others. Atoms, time, space, akasa, souls and manas all have their particularities, which are not qualities of classes but only of individuals. These distinctive particularities are the final facts beyond which there is no more information available. Note also that if the things are fundamentally different, then it is impossible to find a common character in them.

3.6 Samavaya or Inherence

Kanada means by inherence the relation between cause and effect. Prasastapada defines it as the relationship subsisting among things that are inseparable, standing to one another in the relation of the container and the contained, and being the basis of the idea, "This is in that." Thus virtue and pleasure are not related by inherence, though they reside in the self, since they have no relation like that between the container and the contained. Similarly, the relation between the word and the thing signified is not one of inherence, since one is not contained in the other. The fruit may be on the ground, but as the two are not inseparable, they cannot be said to be related by way of inherence. Generally the relation which binds a substance and its qualities, a whole and its parts, motion and the object in motion, individual and universe, cause and effect, is that of samavaya (inherence). The members related are so unified as to represent one whole or one identical real.

Inherence is said to be eternal. Samavaya, or necessary connection, is distinguished from samyoga, or accidental conjunction, which is quality of things. While objects conjoined have a separate existence prior to conjunction, the members related to samavaya are inseparably connected. The relationship of samavaya is not caused by the action of one of the members related. Conjunction terminates as soon as there is a disjunction of the members conjoined, while the connection is indestructible. Again, the conjunction takes place between two independent substances, while the members related by way of inherence stand in the relation of the container and the contained. Two things in relation of samavaya cannot be separated without at least one of them being destroyed. Samavaya is thus eternal in the sense that it cannot be produced or destroyed without producing or destroying the product. Its eternity is thus relative. The relation of samavaya is not perceptible, but only inferential from the inseparable connection of things.

3.7 Abhava or Non-existence

The concept of negation (abhava) is necessary for the dialectical representation of the universe (Rig Veda: 10/72/2-3; 10/129/1). To give a coherent account of experience, the abhava is helpful. Thus, when the jar is on the ground, its existence is perceived, and its non-existence is perceived when it is removed from the ground. Note that the non-existence was there all the time, though it was hidden when the jar was on the ground. Thus the absolute non-existence of everything is at all times present everywhere, though it is hidden for the time and in the place the thing happens to be.

4. The Atomic Theory

Atomic theory represents the conceptual scheme adopted to explain the facts of nature. In the annals of human thought, it is a step forward from animism. It can be traced to the Vedas and Upanisads. The latter generally regarded all material things as made up of the four elements of light, water, air and earth. Akasa is left out, since it has a peculiar character of its own and does not enter into combination with the other elements. But the four elements of light, water, air and earth are themselves changeable and divisible, while the real, comprising them, may be regarded as unchangeable and eternal. Thus the atomic theory tries to investigate the unchangeable, indivisible and eternal constituent particles.

All the materials and the compounds (even those containing the elements of light, water, air and earth) are non-eternal, while the component particles which are not produced are eternal. The invisible eternal atoms are incapable of division into parts. The atom marks the limit of division in the Vaisesika. The changes in the volumes of the bodies are determined by the accession and withdrawal of the atoms composing them. The atoms are the material causes of effects. Though they are supersensible, they can be classified, though not from the standpoint of size, shape, weight and density. The qualities, which they produce in the different forms of sensible things, help in the classification of atoms.

Leaving aside the general properties of sensible things, such as impenetrability, which are perceived by more senses than one, the special qualities are odor, flavor, luminosity and temperature. These differ in kind and not merely in degree. It is assumed that there are four classes of paramanus (basic particles), answering to the four great classes of material objects, earth, water, light and air. These four classes of paramanus are said to produce the four senses of touch, taste, sight and smell, and that is why each special sense reveals a single quality, however excited. Though the qualities of earthly things -- as color, taste, smell and tangibility -- vanish on the destruction of the thing itself, they are always found in their respective atoms, though in earth and atoms of earth some qualities may be produced by heat. Water, light and air do not suffer a similar change.

The qualities of all products are due to the atoms of which they are composed. These atoms possess the five general qualities of all substances, as also those of priority and posterity. In addition to these, earth has the special quality of odor and the other qualities of taste, color, touch or temperature, heaviness, velocity and fluidity. Water has the special quality of viscosity and the other qualities of earth except smell. Light has the usual seven, and temperature, color, fluidity and velocity, while air has only touch and velocity in addition to the seven common qualities. These qualities are eternal in the atoms but transient in the products.

The individual atoms combine with others to form a product. They may continue in that co-operative existence for some time and again disintegrate into their original solitary being to form new combinations. This process of grouping and separation goes on endlessly. According to the Vaisesika, atoms do not exist in an uncombined state in creation. During creation they are said to possess a vibratory motion (parispanda). Singly the atoms are not productive. Moreover, as the atoms are different than their products, so the building blocks for things should comprise dyads (composed of two primary atoms).

Similarly, as some of the things may be dyadic in composition, which indicates that the basic building unit is dyad itself and not even a triad (containing three atoms). Both single atoms and dyads are minute and invisible. The magnitude of the product depends on the magnitude of the parts or their number or arrangement. As the number of dyads increases, there is a corresponding increase in the dimension of the product. The things produced by the union of atoms are not mere aggregates but wholes. Even though the atoms by themselves are imperceptible, their collection is perceptible. In this, the whole and the parts are related by way of inherence.

The atoms, which are the material causes of the dyads, are eternal and cannot be destroyed. The dyads are destroyed, not by the destruction of the primary atoms, but by the destruction of the conjunction of the primary atoms. The Vaisesika conceives two kinds of destruction, an avamtarapralaya (or intermediate dissolution), where only tangible products are destroyed, and amahapralaya (or universal destruction), where all things material and immaterial, are resolved into atoms. Srsti (creation) and pralaya (destruction) are the phases of potentiality and explication of the eternal substances.

Thus, according to the Vaisesika, atom is the imperceptible unit. Atoms, generally at rest, are different in kind, each possessing its own distinct individuality (visesa). They are also qualitatively different, and possess one, two, three or four of the ordinary qualities according as they are atoms of air, fire, water, and earth; and they have no connection with sound. The qualitative differences of objects depend upon the qualities of their constituting atoms. It follows that the Vaisesikas believe in the secondary qualities being inherent in the atoms, and distinguish souls from atoms and regard them as co-eternal existences. The souls and the atoms (or their products) may however be brought together by adrsta. Vaisesikas make the principle of the adrsta (moral law or dharma) central to their whole system. Their atomistic view thus seems to be influenced by a spiritual tendency.

Although the passage of time and the evolution in science brought drastic changes in succeeding cultures to the basic Vaisesika concepts of atoms (building blocks) and the atomic theory, the initial contribution of this system in analyzing the world through its components and their intermediary relations cannot be overlooked. Moreover, the ideas and methods of the Vaisesika, developed long time ago, still are applicable for solving, through the pluralistic approach, a variety of present problems involving individuals and the societies.

5. Ethics

The Vaisesika makes a distinction between voluntary and involuntary activities, and holds that moral distinctions apply only to the former. Acts due to organic life are involuntary, while those which spring from desire and aversion are voluntary. The former have organic ends in view, while the latter aim at realization of human values. Dharma, according to the Vaisesika, treats of the attainment of worldly prosperity as well as spiritual good. While the former is the product of ceremonial piety, the latter is the result of spiritual insight. The highest kind of pleasure is the pleasure of the wise, which is independent of all such agencies as the remembrance of the object, desire, reflection, and is due to their knowledge, peacefulness of mind, contentment, and the peculiar character of their virtue.

Thirteen universal duties according to the Vaisesika include: faith (sraddha), non-violence (ahimsa), kindly feeling for all beings (bhutahitatva), truthfulness (satyavacana), integrity (asteya), sexual purity (brahmacarya), purity of mind (anupadha-bhavasuddhi), renunciation of anger (krodhavarjana), personal cleanliness through bathing (abhisecana), the use of purifying substances (sucidravyasevana), devotion to the deity (visistadevatabhakti), fasting (upavasa), and non-neglect of duties (apramada). It is also admitted that sannyasin (hermit or swami) is not one who gives up the world to itself, but one who takes the vow of universal benevolence. The observance of above duties results in virtue (dharma) when they are done, without a desire for gaining thereby any visible results (as wealth, etc.), and with the utmost purity of motive. Spiritual growth requires suppression of self. It is said: "to the unrestrained (ayatsya), exaltation (or abhyudaya) does not accrue from eating what is pure, since there is no self-restraint." Yoga as a means of self-control is allowed. It is not mechanical conformity to the rules but inner goodness that counts.

Dharma is not only the content of morality to the Vaisesika, but also the power or quality which resides in the human being and not in the action performed. A selfless insight into the truth of things can secure the final release (moksa). So long as a person is dominated by desire and aversion, he stores up dharma and adharma or adrsta, and the results of his deeds force on him an embodied existence. The body is the seat of enjoyment (bhogayatanam). Union with adrsta and its effect of body is samsara; separation from it is moksa. According to the Vaisesika, the soul in the state of liberation is absolutely free from all connection with qualities, and subsists like the sky free from all conditions and attributes, while according to the Nyaya, the state of freedom is one of bliss and wisdom.

Activity motivated by the feeling of separate self-existence is based on ignorance of the truth of things. When it is realized that the objects which look so attractive and repulsive are only temporary compounds of atoms, they cease to be significant and having power over the person. Similarly, when he realizes the true nature of the atman, which is distinct from this or that form of its existence, he shall know that all souls are alike. When the true knowledge dispels the motive of self-interest, self-activities cease, no potential worth is produced, and there will be no more birth. The bliss of deliverance is regarded as the result of divine grace, and the rules of dharma as the expression of the will of God.

All the time the soul is in samsara, it is incarnate in some body or other, which is subtle in pralaya (dissolution) and gross in creation, and there is never a state when the atman is devoid of adrsta, since there is no beginning for the series of incarnations. The time, place, and circumstances of birth, etc., are determined by the adrsta. Each soul is allowed the chance to reap the harvest of its past deeds. Note, like other Hindu systems, the Vaisesika admits that it is possible for a person to rise to a superior order of existence through good effort or fall into a subhuman one through neglect.

6. God

In the Vaisesika God (Isvara) is the efficient cause of the world, while the atoms are the material cause. The Vaisesika believes in the eternal and uncreated nature of souls and atoms, and accounts for their varying states by the principle of adrsta (under God's will). Vedas are authored by intelligent beings, under the guidance of an eternal omniscient, all-holy spirit. There is only one God and his intelligence, desire and effort are eternal. God is distinguished from souls by his omniscience and omnipotence, which qualify him for governing the universe. He is never entangled in the cycle of existence. He sets the world under certain laws, lets it go, and does not interfere with its course. Ref.:
http://www.geocities.com/lamberdar/vaisesika.html

6. Gita as the multi-faceted text

Three tattvas (or principles) of Satya (Absolute or the ultimate reality) are the co-eternals: Brahman, soul (purusa), and the world of matter or nature (prakrti). The last two (soul and the world of matter) are jointly called Srshti or Samsara (Creation). Thus, Satya or Absolute comprises essentially Brahman (God) and Samsara (Creation).

The Gita (or Bhagavad Gita) is one of those rare books, which can be characterized in several ways. For example,

(1) Sruti: It is called the Gita-Upanishad because of its elaborate revelation and commentary on Brahman and soul.

(2) Scripture: It advocates concepts of morality, works, and paths to salvation, Gita (Ch. 16, 17, 18).

(3) Itihasa: Gita (Ch. 1) as part of the Mahabharata.

(4) Philosophy: Gita as a philosophy:

(a) Samkhya: Gita (Ch. 13, 14) describes the dynamic prakrti (nature or body) as the dominant force in the universe. Realizing that the purusa (soul) is separate from the prakrti leads to liberation (Ch. 2) according to the Samkhya (yoga of Vision or Jnana). Note, both the Buddhism and the Jainism (where the prakrti is considered the dominant force) relate very closely to the Samkhya.

Note: A significant contribution to the Samkhya darshana (philosophy) includes ancient works of Rsi (sage) Kapila.

(b) Yoga: Gita (Ch. 5) indicates that the Yoga and the Samkhya lead basically to the same outcome and that liberation (involving the separation of Purusa from prakri) according to the Yoga is achieved through Yogic methods (e.g. Ch. 6 -- by focusing the citta on God) involving yoga of Action or Karma.

Note: A significant contribution to the Yoga darshana (philosophy) includes ancient works of Rsi (sage) Patanjali.

(c) Purva Mimamsa: Gita (Ch. 3) describes the use of various sacrificial acts.

Note: A significant contribution to the Purva Mimamsa darshana (philosophy) includes ancient works of Rsi (sage) Jaimini.

(d) Vedanta or Uttar Mimamsa: Gita (Ch. 10,11 and 12) describes Brahman to be the supreme power. Note that this is one of the greatest features of the Gita to reconcile at the same place (book) two opposing philosophies on the nature of basic dynamic force (the Vedanta with Brahman and the Samkhya with prakrti).

Note: A significant contribution to the Vedanta darshana (philosophy) includes ancient works of Rsi (sage) Badarayana.

(e) Vaisesika or Atomistic Plularlism: Gita (e.g. Ch. 7.4, 7.5) relates the sentient and the insentient.

Note: A significant contribution to the Vaisesika darshana (philosophy) includes ancient works of Rsi (sage) Kanada.

(f) Nyaya or Logicism: Gita (Ch. 2.49, 18.63, 18.72) puts a great emphasis on logic and reasoning, even in matters of spirituality and religion.

Note: A significant contribution to the Nyaya darshana (philosophy) includes ancient works of Rsi (sage) Gautama.

REFERENCES

(1) The Upanishads by S. Prabhavananda & F. Manchester, the Vedanta Society of Southern California, Vedanta Press, Hollywood (Ca), U.S.A., 1957.

(2) Bhagvad Gita, Gita Press, Gorakhpur, India.

(3) Mahabharata by C. Rajagopalachari, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai, India, 1996.

(4) The Rig Veda (Ralph T.H. Griffith, Translator; 1896): http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/

(5) Indian Philosophy (Vol. 2), Radhakrishnan, S. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1989; ISBN 0195638204.
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APPENDIX
The Bhagavad Gita (the Gitopanishad: Ch. 16) – Vedic Ethics (summary)
Nature of the Good and the Bad
(added: Nov. 19, 2007)

1. Freedom from fear, purity of heart, constancy in sacred learning and contemplation, generosity, self-harmony, adoration, study of the scriptures, austerity, righteousness;

2. Non-violence, truth, freedom from anger, lack of over-attachment, serenity, aversion to fault-finding, sympathy for all beings, peace from greedy cravings, gentleness, modesty, steadiness;

3. Energy, forgiveness, fortitude, purity, a good will, freedom from pride. These are the treasures of the person who is born for heaven.

4. Deceitfulness, insolence and self-conceit, anger and harshness and ignorance - these belong to a person who is born for hell.

5. The virtues of heaven are for liberation (of the soul) but the sins of hell are the chains (captivity) of the soul. Grieve not, Arjuna, for heaven is your final end.

6. There are two natures in this world: the one (good) is of heaven, the other (bad) is of hell. The heavenly nature has been explained; hear now of the evil of hell.

7. Evil persons know not what should be done or what should not be done. Cleanliness or purity (internal and external) is not in them, nor good conduct, nor truth.

8. They say: ‘This world has no truth, no moral foundation, no God. There is no law of creation: what is the cause of birth but lust?’

9. Firm in this belief, these persons of dead souls, of truly little intelligence, undertake their work of evil: they are the enemies of this fair world, working for its destruction.

10. They torture their soul with insatiable desires and full of deceit, insolence, and pride, they hold fast their dark ideas, and they carry on their impure work.

11. Thus they are beset with innumerable cares (worries) which last long, all their life, until death. Their highest aim is sensual (material) enjoyment (fulfillment), and they firmly think that this is all.

12. They are bound by hundreds of vain hopes. Anger and lust is their refuge; and they strive by unjust means to amass wealth for their own cravings.

13. They say: ‘I have gained this today, and I shall attain this desire. This wealth is mine, and that shall also be mine.’

14. They say: ‘I have slain that enemy, and others also shall I slay. I am a lord, I enjoy life, I am successful, powerful and happy.’

15. ‘I am wealthy and of noble birth (class or caste): who else is there like me? I shall pay for religious rituals, I shall make benefactions (charitable contributions), I shall enjoy myself.’ Thus they say in their darkness of delusion.

16. Led astray by many wrong thoughts, entangled in the net of delusion, enchained to the pleasures of their cravings, they fall down into a foul hell.

17. In their haughtiness of vainglory, drunk with the pride of their wealth, they offer their wrong sacrifices for ostentation (public display), against divine law.

18. In their chains of selfishness and arrogance, of violence and anger and lust, these malignant persons hate me (God): they hate me in themselves and in others.

19. In the vast cycles of life and death, because of their bad Karma or actions, I (God) inexorably hurl them down to destruction: these the lowest of human, cruel and evil, whose soul (nature) is hate.

20. Reborn in a lower life, in darkness birth after birth, they come not to me, Arjuna; but they go down the path of hell.

21. Three are the gates to this hell, the death of the soul: the gate of lust, the gate of wrath, and the gate of greed. Let a person shun the three (lust, wrath and greed).

22. When a person is free from these three doors of darkness (lust, wrath and greed), he does what is good for his soul, and then he enters the Path Supreme.

23. But the person who rejects the words of the Scriptures and follows the impulse of desire attains neither his perfection, nor joy, nor the Path Supreme to God.

24. Let the Scriptures (the Gita / Sruti) be therefore your authority as to what is right and what is not right. Know the words of the Scriptures, and do in this life the work to be done.

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By: Dr. Subhash C. Sharma
Email: [email protected]
Date: Sept. 4, 2005

link to: Related topics by the author