The Delusion of Salem Although the Salem witch trials were not the only witch trials in America, they were the largest. In fact, of the fifty total executions, twenty of those were from Salem alone (Hansen 29). The Salem witch trials (which began in 1692) reveal how fear of the devil and witches, perpetuated by those like Cotton Mather, spread throughout a region, turning neighbor against neighbor, and ultimently became a scapegoat for all that was wrong in the citizens' lives. In retrospect, there are many explanations as to why the mass witch-hunts began. One of those theories is a psychological diagnosis of hysteria, the other is the effect of ergotism. The ergot explanation draws upon the fact that moldy rye produces a rust, ergot. This rust contains up to twenty poisons. One of those poisons produces effects similar to LSD, which causes hallucinations (Jankiewicz 441; Rosenthal 36). According to Jankiewicz and Palfai, "convulsive ergotism has symptoms of tingly fingers, crawling sensations in skin, vertigo, ringing in the ears, insomnia, vomiting, diarrhea, and headaches, and is accompanied by disturbances of sensation and disordered thinking" (441). Many of these symptoms describe the behavior and symptoms experienced by the supposed victims of witchcraft. The other theory, a psychological one, states that those same symptoms embodied by the victims can be produced under circumstances of extreme anxiety. This extreme anxiety is also called hysteria (Hansen 10). Symptoms produced by anxiety may include hallucinations, violent shaking, blindness, and blisters of which there is no physical cause (Hansen 11; Rosenthal 18-19). Regarding the blisters produced by hysteria, they appear and disappear quickly. This fact was noted by Cotton Mather, for he "remarked how fast the 'witch wounds' healed" (Hanson 11). In fact, all of the Colonist in Massachusetts were living under conditions of stress and worry due to the revocation of their charter by Charles II and because of the Test Act of 1673, which was passed with the accession of William and Mary to the throne. With the passage of this act, the Puritans could no longer require church membership to vote (Hansen 119). "This left Massachusetts in an extremely ticklish situation" (Hansen 119). This type of background stress perpetuated a breeding ground for the citizens to feel on edge and suspicious. In fact, Hansen states that " a witch hunt can occur only when the majority of the community feels itself beset by malice - real or imagined- that it loses the capacity to distinguish between the innocent and the guilty" (227). According to Hansen, the cause of the victims' troubles was not due to witchcraft itself but the fear of it (11). However, no theory can accurately explain a historical event without looking directly at what the people of that time wrote. Therefore, it is imperative that one consider the writings of someone like Cotton Mather. Cotton Mather was a puritan preacher at the Second Church of Boston. He lived at a time during which the power of the church and the "Puritan community as he knew it was fading away" (Baym et al. 319). One reason for this was the rebelliousness of those in the community such as Ann Hutchinson. Another possibility was the passage by William and Mary of the Act of Toleration in 1689, which guaranteed freedom of worship to all Protestants except Unitarians (Hansen 119). Mather occupied his free time as a member of the Royal Society and by writing. In fact, it is known that Cotton Mather wrote over four hundred pieces of literature (Hansen 11, Baym et al 319). Because of his writings on witchcraft and of the devil's presence in Wonders of the Invisible World, Cotton Mather "is often blamed for the Salem witch trials" (Baym et al 319). However, Cotton Mather did not intend to incite a witch-hunt. He simply wrote about the world as he saw it, mainly that the devil was out to bring the church down for "he knows he hath but a short time" (Mather 48). One such way Mather saw for the devil to bring the church down was witchcraft. In fact, Mather alludes to this fact in The Wonders of the Invisible World when he states: We have been advised by some Credible Christians yet alive, that a Male factor, Accused of witchcraft as well as murder, and Executed in this place more than Fourty Years ago, did then give Notice of An Horrible Plot against the Country by Witchcraft and a foundation then laid, which if it were not seasonably discovered, would probably Blow up, and pull down all the Churches in the Country. And we have now with horror seen the Discovery of such a Witchcraft! (15) Before examining that "Discovery of such a Witchcraft" (Mather 15), referring to the outbreak in Salem, it is necessary to understand the beginnings of the witch-hunts in Europe. A belief in witches and demons existed since the days of the Old Testament. Therefore, since the people believed in witches, it was probable that they should seek to expose them. Such was the thinking of Pope Innocent VIII when around 1490 he commissioned two Dominican monks, James Sprenger and Henry Kramer, to investigate and eliminate witches. They successively wrote Malleus Maleficarum, which outlines witchcraft and how to judge cases of witchcraft (Hansen 6). With the publication of the Malleus Maleficarum, the people of Europe became on alert for witches. In fact, this fever spread even unto kings and queens for in 1597 Demonology was written by King James. As a result, laws concerning witchcraft were drawn up in light of the King's book which states that "If any man or woman be a witch, that is hath consulth with a familiar Spirit, they shall be put to death" (Drake 26). Consequently, in 1641 John Cotton issued The Body of Liberties for the Bay Colony. These laws were based upon scripture, which incidentally included a law concerning witchcraft (Boas 91). With laws such as those, it became imperative to have a means of proving witchcraft. Much of the rules regarding the exposition of witchcraft came from the Malleus Maleficarum. In fact, the rule that states that a witch should not be put to death if she confesses comes from the Malleus Maleficarum (Van der Linde 18). However, other sources were also used, including one of a Mr. Perkins whose ideas are listed by Cotton Mather in the book On Witchcraft. A brief summary of some of Perkin's ideas about witches as found in On Witchcraft is as follows: "If any man be notoriously defamed for a witch, this yields a strong suspicion," "cursing and banning", "after threatening, their threats come true," "appears contrary to herself", "convicted by two witnesses", "leads a naughty life", a witch's mark present: " a mark whreof no evident Reason in Nature can be given…if pricked, will not bleed" (Mather, 27-31). The witch's mark was probably one of the most important features in the detection of a witch, for when one examines the individual cases of those tried, there is almost always a reference to a witch's mark. The mark was important because it was assumed that the "familiar," (Mather 31) or devil spirit, received nourishment by "sucking or touching" (Mather 31) the mark. Another way to determine whether or not one was a witch was by a "water ordeal" (Boas 92). The "water ordeal" (Boas 92) consisted of tying the hands and feet of the suspect and throwing her into a lake or stream. If the person floated, she was a witch. The reason for this is because of the belief that "Devils infuse their venom in the witch, which would make them Buoyant" (Boas 92). Finally, failure to say the Lord' Prayer perfectly was used to determine if a person was bewitched (Hansen 142). Considering the publicity and mainstreaming of witchcraft, it was probable that one of the largest delusions in America's history started with seven girls sitting around in a circle. The delusion of Salem began with curiosity and boredom of Betty Parris (age 9 and the daughter of Reverend Samuel Parris), Abigail Williams (age 11 cousin to Betty Parris), Mary Wallcott (age 17), Anne Putman (age 12 and the daughter of Thomas Putman), Mercy Lewis (age 17) and Mary Warren (age 20), Elizabeth Booth (age 18), and Sarah Churchill (age 20) (Drake 188-89, Boyer and Nissenbaum 2). The initial cause began when Betty Parris, Abigail Williams, and Mary Wallcutt, who were all at the home of Rev. Parris, being bored asked Rev. Parris' slave Tituba to tell them stories of her home land. Tituba may have told the girls' fortunes or stories of voodoo to keep them entertained while she worked (Van de Linde 32, Rosenthal 12). According to Boas, the girls then began to tell their friends about the stories and began to meet, often sitting in a circle, to listen to the outlandish things Tituba had to say (105). The girls knew that listening to such tales was wrong, for they were warned about demons and witchcraft in sermons. This undoubtedly put a strain on their consciences. Finally their burdens became too much to bear and during a message preached by Reverend Parris, Betty Parris collapsed into a fit that was soon followed by the other "circle girls" (Van der Linde 33-34). This may have been the event Cotton Mather refers to in his Wonders of the Invisible World when he talks about the devil infesting the churches and states, "the houses of Good People there are fill'd with the doleful Shriek's of their Children and Servants, Tormented by Invisible Hands" (Mather 15). Being a concerned father and uncle, Rev. Parris took the girls to Dr. William Griggs who pronounced the diagnosis: "The evil hand is upon them" (Hansen 2). When the neighbors heard of the diagnosis, they began to question the girls as to who was tormenting them, "but at first they were unable to answer" (Hansen 31). Soon the neighbors began looking for persons who would fit the description of a witch as described by Perkins and the Malleus Maleficarum and they began asking, "Does Goody Osburn affect thee? Does Goody Good?" (Van der Linde 35). Eventually the girls answered yes and accused Sarah Osburn and Sarah Good, along with Tituba, of troubling them (Van der Linde 35). On February twenty-ninth, warrants were sent out for their arrest. With these accusations, the delusion of Salem had begun. It is likely that Osburn and Good were suspected due to their infamous reputations. For example, Osburn lived with a man, the overseer of her farm, after her husband's death. She also is noted to have had quarrels with her neighbors (Van der Linde 36). Good also had a soiled reputation, for she was poor and often begged. She may have been accused because she spoke badly of those who did not donate to her. She also did not attend church often (Boas 110, Hansen 36). On March seventh, Good, Osburn, and Tituba were sent to Boston and jailed. Incidentally, Osburn died in jail on the tenth of May (Drake 190-191). The examination of Good and Tituba began on March first. The examination began with Good and there is speculation as to who actually asked the questions, although each source contains the same questions and answers. For instance, Silverman insists that the questioner was Ezekiel Cheever (a former teacher of Cotton Mather) while Drake and Boas state that Rev. Noyes (who is mentioned by Samuel Sewall in his diary) asked the questions . Van der Linde names still another prospect for the questioner as Judge Hawthorne (Silverman 96, Drake 196, Boas 118, and Van der Linde 37). Regardless of who asked the questions, the trial is recorded as follows by all of the mentioned sources and set a precedent for successive trials: Q. Sarah Good, what evil spirit do you have familiarity with? A. None. Q. Have you made contact with the devil? A. No Q. Why do you hurt these children? A. I do not hurt them, I scorn it. Q. Who do you employ, then to do it? A. I employ nobody Q. What creature do you employ then A. No creature, but I am falsely accused (Silverman 96). Then the accusers were asked if this was the person who tormented them and naturally the girls answered yes and began to have convulsions (Van der Linde 37). Next, evidence was and testimony was brought before the judges. Good's own husband testified against her saying "he was afraid that either she was a witch or would be one very quickly….and had seen 'a strange tit or wart'" (Hansen 36). Her five-year-old daughter, Dorcus Good, also gave testimony. However, Dorcus herself was also implicated when the "circle girls" began to have fits and showed the judge bite marks made from a small set of teeth (Silverman 97). Other citizens, who became caught up in the witch hunt frenzy, stated that they had seen her in visions. However, the most damaging evidence of all came from Tituba who stated that Good had " a thing all over hairy…she saw Goods name in the devil's book, and that she and Good rode together on a pole, holding each other" (Silverman 96). Consequently , Good was found guilty and hanged on July nineteenth, 1692 (Drake 196). However, her supposed accomplice Tituba was never tried herself, for she was sold to pay her prison charges (Drake 190). With the involvement of the townspeople in implicating and testifying against the supposed witches, the accusations began to mount. In fact, the accusations grew so numerous that Cotton Mather called upon the government for "speedy and vigorous Prosecution of such as have rendered themselves obnoxious" (Mather 24). Mather got his wish. On May twenty-seventh, the new Governor Phipps established the Court of Oyer and Terminer, whose name is Latin for hear and determine (Van der Linde 43, Baym et al 320). Seven judges were also appointed by Phipps, which included Samuel Sewall, Wait Winthrop, John Richmond, and William Stroughton who was the chief justice. John Hawthorne, the local judge was also on the panel and conducted most of the questioning ( Silverman 97, Van der Linde 44). Governor Phips also called upon Cotton Mather "for moral and theological support" (qtd. in Mather ii) although he never attended the trials personally (qtd. in Mather ii). With the formation of the court the official trials could begin. The first case heard by the court of Oyer and Terminer was that of Bridget Bishop. Considering Bishop's lifestyle, it is not surprising that she was implicate d, for she had been married three times, ran an unlicensed tavern (Silverman 99), and wore a " red bodice laced with many-colored ribbons" (Van der Linde 46). Some of the testimony against Bishop included visions of her and the finding of two "puppets made of hog bristles and rags, stuck with headless pins" (Silverman 100). Also, according to Cotton Mather, there was testimony given by a John Bly and his Wife that a pig he had bought from Bishop's husband "was taken with strange Fits; jumping, leaping, and Knocking her Head against the Fence; …would neither Eat nor be Sucked (108). She was found guilty on June tenth and hanged, the first of the real victims in the delusion of Salem (Silverman 100). There were many such unfortunate persons hanged and according to Cotton Mather, twenty-one persons confessed (16). Therefore, this paper will examine only those cases specifically mentioned by Cotton Mather in On Witchcraft and the cases mentioned by Samuel Sewall, those being the trials of Giles Corey, Martha Carrier, and George Burroughs. The trial of Giles Corey is both disturbing and ironic. It illustrates just how far the delusion of Salem extended. The irony of the Giles Corey case was that he was dragged into the trial because his wife was accused of witchcraft and was on trial herself. In fact, the whole matter might have been avoided if he had listened to his wife, who did not approve of his attending the trials. Word of her disapproval spread around the neighborhood and at a church meeting Mrs. Corey paid for her disapproval. According to Cotton Mather, during the sermon Abigail Williams cried, "Look where Goodwife C. sits on the Beam suckling her Yellow Bird [a familiar] betwixt her fingers! Anne Putman …said, There was a Yellow Bird sat on my Hat" (161). Goodwife Corey was successively brought to trial. During her trial Abigail Williams, Anne Putnman, and Elizabeth Parris gave testimony that Corey bit, pinched, and strangled them. They also brought up the fact that they saw Goodwife Corey with a yellow bird. Upon hearing that testimony, Goodwife Corey was asked if "she had any familiarity with such a thing" (Mather 162). She replied that she was a church going woman and a Christian. However, this defense did not work (Mather 161-163). Consequently, her husband Giles Corey was called to testify against her and being suspicious, Corey refused to answer the questions. As a result, on September 16th, 1692, at the age of eighty, he had to undergo the pressing of heavy weights upon his chest until he talked. This was the result of an old law. However, according to the law he was offered bread and water and his protruding tongue was poked back into his mouth. With the pressing of such weights upon his chest it was impossible for him to answer and inevitably he died two days later (Drake 192, Boas 111, Sewall 364). This case must have been upsetting for those who watched. In fact, Samuel Sewall remarked about the "pressing to death" (Sewall 364) in his diary. Another trial mentioned by Sewall and Mather was that of Martha Carrier. Martha Carrier was an upstanding citizen; however, her fault lay in the fact that she was quarrelsome with the neighbors (Boas 122, Mather 125-126). She must have deeply offended many of her neighbors, for Cotton Mather recorded that there were "a considerable number of the bewitched persons" (125) who brought testimony against her and that they "were so tortured that everyone expected their Death upon the very spot" ( 125). Most of the testimony against her involved arguments she had with various neighbors. An example was the testimony given by Benjamin Abbot who had bought some land next to Carrier's. Mather reported that Carrier became angry at Abbot and said that "she would stick as close to Abbot as the Bark stuck to the Tree; and that he should repent of it afore seven years came to an End" (126). It was also recorded that soon after Carrier made this statement, Abbot incurred a pain in his side and swelling in his foot, which when lanced procured "several gallons of corruption" (Mather 126). Testimony was also given against her directly linking her to witchcraft as a lady named Foster and another named Lacy testified that they had seen Carrier at witch meetings and that it was her who had persuaded them to become witches (Mather 128). Further damaging statements were made against Carrier by her own sons, Richard (age 28) and Andrew (age 16) (Rosenthal 61). However, their testimony did not come as willingly as Cotton Mather suggests in his account. According to Rosenthal, the boys were brought in for being accused of witchcraft themselves by Mary Warren and Mary Lacy who stated that Richard threatened to make a spindle for Andrew that "would afflict Mary Warren and make blood come out of her mouth" (Rosenthal 161). Consequently, the Carrier boys were jailed themselves and tortured until they confessed to the charges, stating that their mother had made them do it (Rosenthal 162). Martha Carrier was found guilty and hanged on August 19th, 1692 along with George Burroughs (Drake 191) . As noted by Samuel Sewall, the trial and successive execution of George Burroughs was touching and provoked an outcry against the trials (Sewall 363). In fact, Cotton Mather wrote in his account of the trials, "Glad should I have been, if I had never known the Name of this Man; or never had this occasion to mention so much as the first Letters of his Name" (99). Upon examaning the lifestyle of George Burroughs, it is hard to understand why he was indited for witchcraft. Burroughs came from a wealthy family and was a minister, a fact noted by Samuel Sewall in the January 21,1690 entry of his diary (Sewall 340). However, the fact that he had been a preacher may have been his down fall, for in 1673 the congregation of Salem village brought a suit against him because he had stopped the Sabbath meetings. He had halted the meetings because his salary had not been paid. One notable fact about this ordeal was that Burroughs was arrested and brought to trial for stopping the meetings by John Putman, father of Ann Putman, who also had a "private debt" (Boyer 55) against Burroughs (Boyer 54-55). In light of this information, the fact that Burroughs was accused of witchcraft at a time of massive witch hunting should not be shocking. According to Cotton Mather, Burroughs was accused by five persons of tormenting them; he was accused by eight witches as "an head actor at some of their Hellish Rendezvous" (99). Finally, he was accused by nine people for "extraordinary Lifting…as could not be done without Diabolical Assistance" (Mather 99). Thirty other citizens also accused him (Mather 99). In his defense, Burroughs admitted to the trial a book written by an Ady in 1661, A Candle in the Dark or a Treatise Concerning the Nature of Witches and Witchcraft. He did so with the intention of proving that the charges brought against him did not constitute witchcraft and that the "spectral evidence" (Boas 120) brought against his was invalid (Boas 120). However, this defense did him no good. On August nineteenth, 1692, he was led in a cart to the gallows. He asked Cotton Mather to pray with him and openly forgave his accusers. While on a ladder he made a speech protesting his innocence. Burroughs concluded his speech by reciting the Lord's Prayer perfectly. This caused a stir among the crowd, for they were taught that a witch could not say the Lord's Prayer perfectly (Hansen 142-146). In fact, According to Hansen, "Mr. Mather, being mounted upon a horse addressed himself to the people …to possess the people of his guilt by saying that the Devil has often been transformed into an angel of light" (148). The execution of George Burroughs caused the people to entertain the thought that the situation in Salem might have gotten out of control. Concerned citizens began to fight back against the accusers. Some citizens began to circulate petitions. In fact, there is a record of Thomas Wilkins, John Tarbell and Samuel Nurse being severed from the church because of their efforts to stop the trials ( Boas 125). One man even brought counter charges against his accuser in the amount of one thousand pounds (qtd. in Mather iii). Also, the judges held a meeting in which it became evident that instead of a decrease in the instances of witchcraft with the execution of witches, there seemed to be and increasingly larger body of the accused. They decided that "this must be stopped or a Generation of the children of God would fall under that condemnation" (Drake 202-203). However, Governor Phips officially closed the Court of Oyer and Terminer on September 24, 169 2 upon the accusation of Lady Phipps. At the time of the court's closure, there were fifty persons in jail (Van der Linde 62, Boas 113). However, with the closure of the trials did not mean closure for those of Salem or even closure for all of America. Samuel Sewall was greatly affected by the trial s and writes in his diary about publicly admitting his guilt for his part in the tria ls (Sewall 445). Ann Putnam was also struck with a guilty conscience and in 1706, in front of the congregation, she "begged to lie in the dust and be humbled for her role in the Salem witchcraft trials" (Van der Linde 63). Not only were individuals convicted of their part in the delusion, but so was all of America, for the Salem witch trials were the last to be held in the country.