Abstract Abnormal psychology, or psychopathology, has a long history beginning with the recognition of abnormal behavior in primitive man until the present. This history is an evolution of theories and treatments, propitiated by contributions from revolutionary thinkers. Theories proposed by primitive, ancient, and modern man attempts to explain deviancies in behavior according to the prevalent thinking and knowledge available to that age. Each era was dominated by individuals who exerted a great influence on the evolution of knowledge about abnormal behavior. Early hypotheses were divided between two dominant views, external causation and internal causation. In general, treatment was related to the assumed cause. However, in recent centuries, beginning in the eighteenth, abnormal psychology has moved toward a more scientific approach, which has sprung many theories from the disease model to psychosocial, genetic, and behavioral causes. The history of abnormal psychology began with the first recognition of abnormal behavior among cave men and continues until this day. The annals of abnormal psychology are not presented in a continuous progression forward, moreover, it is marked with a pattern of advancement and decline in both causation and treatment. This paper will discuss the major ideas and persons who have impacted the evolution of abnormal psychology in the following time periods: ancient, Middle Ages and Renaissance, seventeenth century, eighteenth century, nineteenth century, and twentieth century. Ancient Man and Abnormal Behavior The earliest views of abnormal behavior look to the belief in sprits and gods as the source of the madness. According to Carson and Butcher (1992), primitive man believed that deviant behavior was the work of an evil spirit. However, there is no written record of this belief although there is evidence of trephining. Trephining was a procedure in which a circular hole was cut through the skull. Carson and Butcher (1992) suggests that the hole “presumably allowed the evil sprit that was causing the trouble to escape” (p. 30). This attribution of abnormal behavior to the supernatural continued until the eighteenth century. In fact, there are written records of the beliefs of the early Hebrews and Babylonians. The early Hebrews thought deviant behavior was due to a punishment from God. Moreover, according to Carson and Butcher (1992), “Moses is quoted in the Bible as saying ‘The Lord shall smite thee with madness’” (p.31). The ancient Babylonians also attributed insanity to the gods. Rosenthal (1971) reports that King Nebuchadnezzar suffered from lycanthropy “in which the victim believed he was a wolf” (p. 2). Rosenthal (1971) also states that the Babylonians attributed the king’s behavior to a god named Idta. However, near the end of the fifth century B.C., thought concerning abnormal behavior temporarily moved away from the supernatural to became more rational. According to Martin (1970), the Greeks began to seek rational explanations and the dominance of religious explanations declined. Rosenthal (1971) supports this idea by reporting that when King Cleomens became mentally ill, some of the Greeks attributed the condition to drinking too much wine. However, much of this rational thinking can be attributed to a prominent Greek thinker, Hippocrates. Hippocrates rejected supernatural explanations for abnormal behavior. Instead, he believed that an “unhealthy brain was the seat of madness and delirium” (Page, 1971, p.82). Moreover, he attributed depressive states to an imbalance in bodily fluids, particularly an excess of black bile. Therefore, treatment often consisted of bleeding the patient (Page, 1971; Carson & Butcher 1992). Another influential Greek was Galen, who lived in Rome. He believed , like Hippocrates, that causes of deviant behavior can be explained rationally. Moreover, he divided potential causes of abnormal behavior in to two categories: physical and mental. However, this rational thought, which continued from about 430 BC to AD 400, did not last (Carson & Butcher 1992). Abnormal Behavior in the Middle Ages and Renaissance During the Middle Ages rational thought was replaced with superstition and a belief in evil sprits. In fact, many of the mentally ill in the Middle Ages were diagnosed as being witches. Torture and persecution was the prescribed treatment. This is evident in the mass witch trials that spread throughout Europe during this time (Carson & Butcher, 1992; Martin, 1970). However, the Renaissance ushered a revival of classical learning and the return of scientific thought. Moreover, near the latter sixteenth century, there were those who called for more rational thinking and methods. In fact, Johann Weyer, a German physican, asserted that the “witches” were actually mentally disturbed. He exposed the fallacies of attributing abnormal behavior to witchcraft and demons. Moreover, he was one of the first to specialize in the treatment of mental disorders and to bring psychiatric treatment into medicine. Therefore, he can be considered the father of psychopathology . His work contributed to the establishment of asylums for the mentally insane (Martin, 1970; Carson & Butcher, 1992). The Eighteenth Century and Abnormal Behavior The asylums for the mentally ill during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were mainly holding places for those who exhibit deviant behavior. However, during the eighteenth century these asylums were transformed from mere holding places to hospitals, with a scientific approach to studying mental disorders. Two influential persons on this change were Phillipe Pinel of France and Benjamin Rush of the United States (Page, 1971; Carson & Butcher, 1992). Phillipe Pinel contributed a scientific approach to the evolution of psychopathology. He insisted upon keeping a detailed record on each patient, which included initial onset of disorder, any changes in the patient’s condition, and a follow up of the eventual outcome (Page, 1971). According to Page (1971), “Pinel maintained that before any claim could be made for the effectiveness of any treatment procedure, on should first know the outcome of the disorder when left to the unassisted efforts of nature” (p.91). This belief of Pinel is reminiscent of a scientific control group. Page (1971) also asserts that Pinel contributed to the development of a classification system and “recognized the importance of emotional and psychogenic factors in the etiology of most mental disorders” (p. 91). However, Benjamin Rush also contributed to the evolution of abnormal psychology . In fact, according to Carson and Butcher (1992), he is considered the father of American psychiatry. In fact, in 1812 Rush wrote Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind. This was the first treatise on psychiatry written by an American and “the first attempt to organize a course on the subject” (Carson & Butcher, 1992). However, his methods of treatment were still primitive and consisted of “bleeding, purging, and water cures” (Sarason, 1980, p.35). Nevertheless, what was significant about his treatment was that it occurred in a medical hospital (Sarason, 1980). However, abnormal psychology would not become scientific until the nineteenth century. The Nineteenth Century and Abnormal Psychology The nineteenth century saw many changes and advances in the realm of medical science and efforts were made to identify, study, and rationally treat diseases. According to Page (1971), “advances in medicine during the nineteenth century rekindled the interest in diseases to include ‘diseases’ of the mind. In fact, according to Martin (1970), in the 1880’s psychiatry came into recognition as a medical specialty. Furthermore, one of the major advancements on the empirical study of abnormal behavior was given by Wilhelm Wundt. With his establishment of the first experimental laboratory in 1879, scientific methods were applied to psychology and passed down to the successive branches of psychology. Moreover, D. P. Schultz and S.E. Schultz (1996) report that the nineteenth century saw the emergence of two schools of thought, somatic and psychic. The somatic school attributed abnormal behavior to physical causes such as “brain lesions, understimulated nerves, or nerves that were too tight. In fact, Page (1971) reports that in 1884 Thudichum developed a “biochemical formulation” (p.6) of the disease concept. Another proprietor for the omatic school, according to Page (1971) and Carson and Butcher (1996) was Emil Krapelin, a German psychiatrist. Krapelin believed that mental disorders related to physical disorders. Krapelin’s approach to abnormal psychology included the identification of symptoms that were associated with diseases. Therefore , he believed that the outcome of each disorder could be predicted and assumed that once the underlying biological cause had been discovered and corrected, the symptoms would disappear (Page 1971). Thus, Krapelin promoted a biological cause of abnormal behavior. The psychic school, on the other hand, believed that deviant behavior was explainable in terms of psychological or mental causes (D.P. Schultz & S.E. Schultz, 1996). However, the somatic view was the dominant view and these two schools of thought carried over into the twentieth century (D.P. Schultz & S.E. Schultz). Abnormal Psychology and the Twentieth Century In the twentieth century, abnormal psychology evolved into a truly scientific genre. In fact, John B. Watson, in his Psychology as the Behaviorist views it (1913), as quoted in A History of Modern Psychology (1996), “…psychology of drugs,…psychopathology are all vigorous growths [from experimental psychology]….At present these fields are truly scientific and are in search of generalizations which will lead to the control of human behavior” (D.P. Schultz & S.E.Schultz, 1996). The twentieth century saw a growth of scientific research in the areas of biological, psychological, behavioral, and sociocultural explanations of abnormal behavior. There was a burst of scientific activity and hypothesis concerning abnormal psychology that continues to this day. Much of the diversity among the varying theories is the result of reactions against various schools of thought. Since the history of abnormal psychology is still being written, this paper will only discuss some of the earlier ideas that sparked debate and the formation of reacting theories. One of the earliest reactionary theories in abnormal psychology during the twentieth century was psychoanalysis. According to D.P. Schultz and S.E. Schultz (1996), “psychoanalysis developed as a revolt against the somatic view (p.360). Proponents of psychoanalysis believed emotional factors were more important than physical causes. Influential persons in this field were Jean Martin Charcot, with the treatment of hypnosis and Signumd Freud, who proposed a whole list of treatments for abnormal behavior including free association, self-analysis, and dream interpretation. Consequently, psychoanalysis’ introspective methods soon sparked many reactionary theories. According to Kriegman, Gardner, and Abuse (1975), the twentieth century saw a revival of the somatic view with a “NeoKraepelinan movement” (p.39). This movement considered genetic factors and points to a neurobiological view of abnormal behavior (Kriegman, Gardner, & Abuse, 1975). In fact, Martin (1970) reports that in 1949, Walter Hess and Antonio Maniz received Nobel prizes related to abnormal psychology. Hess received his prize for discovering how specific parts of the brain control specific parts of the body. Antonio Maniz, co-recipient, received his prize for an operational procedure known as prefrontal lobotomy, which reduced violent behavior in many mental patients. Thus, the trend of moving toward biological and clinical research in abnormal psychology. However, another trend in abnormal psychology also developed; that is, a behavioral view. According to Kriegman, Gardner, and Abse (1975), behavioral modification emerged with great success. This treatment or view was derived from the contributions of Pavlov, and Skinner. Kriegman, Gardner, and Abse (1975) report that “in this [behavioral modification] there are highly rational goal-directed procedures that emphasize the shaping and control of behavior through laboratory principles of learning” (p.39). However, according to Kriegman, Gardner and Abse (1975), the behavioral learning theory has sparked several reactionary groups including “the encounter method, sensitivity techniques and Gestalt therapy” (p.39). Nevertheless, these counter methods do not have sufficient scientific data to support their techniques and theories. Moreover, the trend in abnormal psychology appears to be toward becoming more scientific in both theory and treatment. A truly revolutionary treatment in the twentieth century is that of psychopharmacology. According to Page (1971) “tranquilizing and antidepressant drugs has been a major influence in revolutionizing the care of mental patients” (p.102). With the discovery and application of neuroleptics or tranquilizers and drugs such as lithium and Prozac, the mentally ill were given greater freedom from the symptoms of their disorder and saw a greater rise in their quality of life, which has always been one of the goals of abnormal psychology. The history and evolution of abnormal psychology has not always followed a straight path on the road to becoming scientific. One can trace the primitive traces of abnormal psychology practiced by the ancient man and find references of primitive societies about the supernatural causes of abnormal behavior. Then, in the fifth century B.C. there was a rise in rational thought only to be thwarted in the Middle Ages with the emergence of superstition and witchcraft. However, during the Renaissance there was a rebirth of classical learning, which promoted rational thought that until the nineteenth century when rational thought evolved into scientific thought. This scientific thought became perfected in the twentieth century when theories and methods in abnormal psychology became grounded in scientific principles and research, which is evolving until this day. References Carson, R.C., & Butcher, J.N. (1992). Abnormal psychology and modern life (9th ed.). New York: Harper Collins. Kriegman, G., Gardner, R.D., & Abse, D.W. (Eds.) . (1975) . American psychiatry past, present, and future. Charlotte: University Press of Virginia. Martin, L.E. (1970). Mental illness: Revolution in progress. New York: McGraw Hill. Page, J.D. (1971). Psychopathology: The science of understanding deviance. Chicago: Aldine & Atherton. Rosenthal, D. (1971). Genetics of psychopathology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Sarason, E.G. (1980). Abnormal psychology: The problem of maladaptive behavior. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Schultz, D.P., & Schultz, S.E. (1996). A history of modern psychology (6th ed.). Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Collage Publishers.