EXAM 1 REVIEW
TEXAS GOVERNMENT 2306
Please note that the
items below are simply definitions of key terms and concepts. You will be asked
to make application of these terms and concepts in a multiple-choice test. Do not expect the exam to be simple
regurgitation of definitions. I am
asking you to think critically, to make the Texas government a part of
yourself. This is a mere supplement to
your notes that you should have been taking in class.
POLITICAL CULTURE: attitudes, habits, general behavior affecting political life of a state or region. Texas culture is characterized as both individualistic and traditionalistic.
INDIVIDUALISTIC POLITICAL CULTURE: government’s job is to maintain a stable society with minimal intervention in the citizens’ lives. This is modern conservatism.
TRADITIONALISTIC POLITICAL CULTURE: government’s job is to maintain the status quo and the existing leadership. Often produces inequality, one-party rule, and political inefficacy for the poor and minorities. This is old-style conservatism.
CULTURAL REGIONS:
EAST TEXAS: Old South, rural, small town, segregated, conservative Protestant
GULF COAST: Energy industry, high level of economic growth, corporate, culturally diverse
SOUTH TEXAS: agricultural, immigrants, higher poverty and crime rates, trend Democratic
SOUTHWEST TEXAS: agricultural, binational, bilingual, bicultural
HILL COUNTRY: agricultural, conservative, Roman Catholic and Lutheran, Germanic/Central European influences
WEST TEXAS/PANHANDLE: conservative, Protestant, ranching, oil/gas, Midwestern in attitude
NORTH TEXAS: industrial/manufacturing, banking/commerce, urbanized, culturally diverse
CENTRAL TEXAS: high tech and manufacturing industries, culturally diverse, military, many colleges and universities, migration from NE and W United States
DEMOGRAPHICS: Rising growth of Hispanic population (c. 35%), significant African-American population (c. 11%), about 50% non-Hispanic white; small, but growing, populations of Asian-Americans, Native Americans, etc.
URBANIZATION: Texas is the most urbanized state in the United States, with Houston, Dallas, and San Antonio all in the top ten largest US Cities; suburbanization has increased around the major metropolitan centers (about 80% of the population lives in a Metropolitan Statistical Area); 4 counties (Harris, Dallas, Bexar, and Tarrant) account for 40% of the state’s population; counties range from Harris (3.6 million) to Loving (<100) in population
MAJOR INDUSTRIES: Energy, petrochemicals, high-tech, biotech, service industries, agriculture, trade
MAJOR SOCIOECONOMIC POLICY ISSUES: immigration, water, environment, education, poverty, crime, etc.
STATE POWERS: Powers “reserved” to the states by the 10th Amendment to the US Constitution; also called the “police powers” (protection and regulation of public safety, public health, public welfare, and public morality)
CONCURRENT POWERS: Powers shared by the state and the national governments, such as taxation, chartering corporations, establishment of courts, certain welfare and education policies, etc.
FULL FAITH AND CREDIT: Article IV, sec. 1 of the US Constitution, states are required to respect all “public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other state,” according to the laws that Congress lays down (so states must recognize, in most circumstances, marriage licenses, drivers’ licenses, divorces, judicial proceedings against a person, etc.)
14th AMENDMENT TO THEUS CONSTITUTION: increases national standards for the state governments to follow; makes state citizens of all residents within a state; “incorporates” the Bill of Rights into the due process clause and makes it applicable against the state governments
15th AMENDMENT TO THE US CONSTITUTION: prohibits states from denying the right to vote in on the basis of race, color, or former slave status
17th AMENDMENT TO THE US CONSTITUTION: US Senators are to be elected by the direct popular vote, not the state legislatures
19th AMENDMENT TO THE US CONSTITUTION: no state may deny women the right to vote
24th AMENDMENT TO THE US CONSTITUTION: no state may require the payment of a poll tax to participate in national elections
26th AMENDMENT TO THE US CONSTITUTION: no state may deny right to vote to those age 18+
JUDICIAL REVIEW OF STATE ACTION: US Courts may declare some state actions unconstitutional if they do not measure up to what the US Constitution requires to protect natural and civil rights
FEDERAL GRANTS-IN-AID:
BLOCK GRANTS: sums of money given to the states to fulfill a vague or general purpose; states are free to decide the specifics of how to spend the federal money offered (e.g., many national welfare programs such as the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families program are funded through block grants to the states who then target money to specific needs)
CATEGORICAL GRANTS: sums of money given to the states to fulfill a specific purpose; states must spend the federal money on a specific project or risk having the grant revoked (e.g., Medicaid, highway construction, unemployment benefits, assistance to mothers with dependent children, and housing assistance)
1836 CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS: separation of church and state, prohibition of emancipation of slaves, short terms for elected officials, unitary government, otherwise similar to the US Constitution
1845 CONSTITUTION: the first constitution of the state of Texas, retained much of the traditional Spanish culture, such as the protection of homesteads from foreclosure, the right of women to hold property and the communal property in marriage
1861 CONSTITUTION: the constitution of Texas during the Civil War, prohibited emancipation, allowed a high debt ceiling
1866 CONSTITUTION: the first Reconstruction-era state constitution, based largely upon the 1845 constitution, nullified secession of 1861, emancipated the slaves and prohibited slavery, granted some rights to former slaves to sue in courts and enter into contracts and obtain/transfer property, renounced Confederate war debts
1868/69 CONSTITUTION: the second Reconstruction-era constitution, created largely by African-Americans and Radical Republicans, provided for annual legislative sessions, centralized power in the governor’s office, 4-year terms for state officials, appointed judges, abolition of county courts, high salaries for government officials
1875/76 CONSTITUTION: the current constitution of the state of Texas, created by a group known as the Texas Grange, mostly rural Democrats frustrated with the abuses of power under the 1868 Constitution; created severe limitations for the state government, such as biennial legislative sessions of short duration, short terms for state officials, strict limits on debt and on legislative powers, created a plural executive, elected judges, provided for complex county governments, lowered salaries for government officials, extremely detailed and disorganized; has been amended over 400 times
EJ DAVIS: Radical Republican governor from 1869-1873, known for centralizing power in his office, using state police forces to intimidate opponents, using public monies for pet interests, racking up huge debt and high taxes, using his office to reward supporters; some reforms such as compulsory school attendance, recognition of full rights of former slaves, etc. Defeated by Richard Coke in 1873, refuses to leave office, finally leaves in Jan. 1874
COUNTY FUNCTIONS:
1. Administration of all county, state, and national elections
2. Law enforcement, esp. in unincorporated areas
3. Collection and maintenance of vital records (births, deaths, marriages, etc.)
4. Vehicle registration
5. Maintenance of land and deed records
6. Collection of some state taxes and fees
7. Maintenance of county roads and bridges
COUNTY GOVERNMENT: structure is determined by the state constitution; changes may be made in county organization only with constitutional authorization
COUNTY COMMISSIONERS COURT: Comprised of four commissioners (each elected to a 4-year terms within one precinct and each responsible for the county roads and bridges in his/her precinct) and the county judge; responsible for adoption of county budget, various county ordinances authorized by the state law, administration of county offices and services
COUNTY JUDGE: Usually the most influential county leader, presides over the commissioners court and the county court (in counties that still have one); administers county agencies that do not have another elected official head; leads the budget decisions in commissioners court
COUNTY ATTORNEY: Represents the state and county in civil and criminal court; about 50 counties do not have a county attorney, so the district attorney performs these tasks
COUNTY SHERIFF: Chief law enforcement official in the county, heads the jail and appoints deputies
COUNTY CLERK: County’s record keeper for both the county court and the commissioners court; records deeds, mortgages, contracts, etc.; maintains vital statistics; in smaller counties may administer elections
COUNTY TAX ASSESSOR-COLLECTOR: Collects taxes and fees for the county and some for the state; may also be responsible for maintaining voter registration rolls in some counties
COUNTY TREASURER: receives and pays out all county funds authorized by the commissioners court
COUNTY AUDITOR: required in counties of 10,000+ residents, appointed by the district court judges to check account books and records of all county officials who handle county funds
PROPERTY TAXES: major source of revenue for both the counties and the municipalities and the special districts; property tax revenue may fluctuate with the value of the property and place undue burden on the poor (regressive tax); poorer areas have to charge higher property tax rates to maintain adequate services required by state law
AUTHORIZED COUNTY FEES: liquor fees, motor vehicle taxes and fees, traffic fines, federal grants-in-aid, bond issues (with voter approval) for certain capital projects; user fees for some county facilities
TAX INCENTIVES FOR BUSINESS:
TAX ABATEMENTS: reductions or suspensions on taxable property
TAX REIMBURSEMENTS: tax money returned to the business after it had been collected
PROBLEMS IN COUNTY GOVERNMENT: constitutionally-determined structure is too rigid; too many elected officials => inefficiency and duplication and competition within the halls of power; lack of a merit-based system of hiring often results in unqualified people performing demanding government jobs; too little money coming in due to the tax and debt limits imposed by state law and constitution; reforms would find a way to do away with these problems
MUNICIPALITIES (CITIES): most common type of government, easily accessible to the public; all are chartered by the legislature and given basic powers by the legislature
GENERAL-LAW CITIES: cities with populations of 201 to 5000 residents, whose charter is prescribed by the legislature and cannot be altered without legislative action; these cities lack the powers of initiative, referendum, and recall
HOME-RULE CITIES: cities with populations of 5000+ residents, whose charter may be adopted by the voters in the city and may be amended by city voters; these cities are limited only by state law establishing times and dates for elections, permissible kinds of charter amendments, and rules governing the establishment of metropolitan transit authorities; these cities may exercise the powers of initiative, referendum, and recall
INITIATIVE: voters in a city may petition the city council to put a measure on the ballot for a popular vote; measures receiving majority support in the election will become part of city law
REFERENDUM: voters in a city may petition the city council to place an existing city ordinance on the ballot for an up or down vote; if a majority votes against the ordinance, the ordinance is formally repealed and no longer law
RECALL: voters may ask for a no-confidence vote against an elected official, such as the mayor, before the term of office expires
STRONG MAYOR-COUNCIL SYSTEM: Common form of government in the largest American cities (only Houston and Pasadena use this system in Texas); mayor is chief administrator and chief political official in the city; mayor creates budget and submits it to council for approval; mayor usually has a strong veto power and may serve as a voting member of the city council
WEAK MAYOR-COUNCIL SYSTEM: mayor has limited administrative powers, some department heads are elected along with the city council, council may override the mayor’s veto, mayor submits budget and council may approve (Conroe has this system)
COUNCIL-MANAGER SYSTEM: most common form of city government in home-rule cities in Texas, became more commonplace after it was first established in Amarillo in 1913; manager is appointed by the city council to administer city departments and prepare the budget for council approval; mayor has very few formal administrative powers
COMMISSION SYSTEM: no single executive power; elected commissioners form a policymaking board; each commissioner responsible for a single city department (Gorman uses this system)
CITY ELECTIONS: non-partisan, lack much attention in most cases due to the absence of party politics, campaigns are more personal and less issue-oriented; all are held the first Saturday in May
PURE AT-LARGE ELECTIONS: all members of the city council are elected in an at-large bid; seats are filled by the highest vote receiver, the next-highest, and so on down until no vacancies remain; this system tends to favor the majority (especially the majority racial group)
SINGLE-MEMBER DISTRICT ELECTIONS: council members are elected from gerrymandered districts of roughly equal population; often produce greater minority representation, because at least one district will have a racial minority in the majority
AT-LARGE PLACE ELECTIONS: all members of the city council are elected city-wide, but candidates run for a specific place on the council; the appearance is then that there are several separate races going on, but each is vying for the same set of voters
CUMULATIVE VOTING ELECTIONS: council members are elected city-wide, but the voters have as many votes as there are seats on the council to fill. Voters may use their votes however they wish, thus they may vote twice, three times, zero times, etc. for a candidate until all their votes are exhausted
TERM LIMITS (PROS): reduce the likelihood of government corruption; provide more honest leadership; new problem-solving techniques are introduced periodically; citizens have greater voice in their government
TERM LIMITS (CONS): reduce the benefits of long-term experience and insight; may create instability; newcomers may easily be dominated by strong lobbies that do not have limits
COMMON MUNICIPAL SERVICES: police/fire protection; city streets; water/sewage/sanitation; parks and recreation; construction/building codes; food-service and health ordinances; zoning regulations (in most cities, Houston being a notable exception); libraries; airports; hospitals; community development; housing; homeless protection; elderly services; job training; prevention of delinquency; pollution controls
SALES TAXES: Cities may charge up to 1% sales tax (a regressive tax, burdening the poor) on all items authorized by the state
HOTEL OCCUPANCY TAX: cities may charge up to 7% tax on hotel rooms; may be one reason that there is always encouragement of hotel growth in the cities
MUNICIPAL FEES: liquor licenses; building permits; traffic fines; franchise fees on gross receipts of public utilities; water/electric/gas fees for cities with their own plants; sewage and wastewater disposal fees; garbage collection fees; recreational fees; hospital fees; parking fees
PROBLEMS FACING CITIES: Lack of money—state limits tax rates, etc; service cut-backs are necessary and/or increases in fees; hiring and wage freezes to reduce long-term costs
CONTRACTING OUT: contracting with a private corporation to provide essential services, such as EMS services, garbage collection, utilities, etc.
AMERICAN POLITICAL PARTIES: Umbrella organizations that incorporate a large group of people from all across the ideological spectrum; usually try to organize people of similar ideologies, but there will always be overlap between the two major parties
PARTY FUNCTIONS: Recruit and nominate candidates for office; simplify/distill issues for voters; mobilize voters for the general election; run the government when they get power
PRAGMATISM: Major characteristic of American political parties—results-oriented rather than concerned about the purity of party doctrine; differences between candidates of major parties may be more a matter of degree of emphasis and problem-solving strategies than any real issue-differences
PARTY DECENTRALIZATION: state and local parties are semi-independent from the national parties and from each other
TWO-PARTYISM: major parties always automatically get on the ballot, 3rd parties have to petition to get on the ballot and/or must have received a certain percentage of the vote in the previous election; two-party system results out of our winner-take-all system of government, where it only takes a plurality, not a majority, of the votes to win an election
SINGLE-PARTY RULE: Democratic party dominated Texas politics through the 1970s and even into the 1980s, as a consequence of Republican Reconstruction policies after the Civil War. “Yellow Dog” Democrats still abound in county and local offices, especially in East and South Texas.
CONSERVATIVES: Wing of the Democratic party that usually won elections in Texas, now are part of the Republican party. Typical conservatives favor limited government intervention in private sector, personal responsibility, traditional social morality, states’ rights, deregulation, and lower taxes; often come from the professional and business classes, more affluent and attached to the status quo; also more likely to vote than their liberal counterparts, because they see voting as a duty
LIBERALS: now nearly all affiliated with the Democratic party and the dominant wing of that party; rarely win elections in Texas. Typical liberals favor more government intervention in private sector, increased government regulation, social responsibility, “progressive” social morality, centralized government, and higher taxes; often come from the unions, educators, environmentalists, and minorities; not as likely to vote, because they see voting as a right to be exercised at personal discretion.
PRESIDENTIAL REPUBLICANS: Texas Democrats who voted for the Republican presidential candidate in most elections since the 1950s but still voted for Democratic candidates in state and local elections
EVANGELICALS: Christian conservatives who have attained power in the state Republican party since about 1994.
ISSUES IN RECENT PARTY PLATFORMS:
Bilingual education
--Republican “English only” policies
--Democrat promotion of bilingual education for all immigrant students; secondary language instruction for all students
School vouchers
--Republican desire to allow parental choice in education by allowing public money to be given directly to parents to spend at whatever school they choose
--Democrat opposition to any form of voucher system that would take money from the public schools and give it to private schools
Abortion
--Republican opposition to nearly all abortion procedures; promotion of the right of the unborn child to life
--Democrat support for nearly all abortion procedures; promotion of the right of the woman to choose whether she will carry her child to term or not as a matter of her privacy
Social Security
--Republican desire to privatize pension system and phase out the Social Security Tax
--Democrat opposition to any effort to eliminate Social Security system
Energy
--Republican desire to foster competition amongst oil and gas producers and encourage production domestically
--Democratic desire to explore clean energy alternatives and reduce dependence on oil and gas altogether
VOTER PARTICIPATION: higher income, older age, and higher education likely factors in determining whether people will vote; so, too, does higher political interest contribute to the effort to participate; party identification, if strong, will encourage voting
PARTY IDENTIFICATION: Number one reason people choose to vote for a certain candidate
NON-PARTISAN ELECTIONS: no candidate wears a party label; often these elections are more about personalities and who one knows rather than about substantive issues (this is the way all local elections in Texas are run—no city officer runs officially as the candidate of a party)
NAME RECOGNITION: another principal reason that people choose a particular candidate
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES: Impact of family life, educational experiences, etc., will contribute to how a voter will cast his/her ballot in an election
TURNOUT TRENDS: Decline in the percentage of overall eligible voters coming to the polls during the elections; due to the expansion of the base of potential voters, as, for example, when we allowed women the right to vote or extended voting rights to those between the ages of 18 and 21; lower turnout also may be due to the decline of strong party identification
INDEPENDENT VOTERS: those most likely to be swayed in the waning days of a campaign toward a particular candidate; these voters are not as politically well-educated as those who identify with a party, nor are they as likely to know all the issues
INTEREST GROUPS: small, faction-like organizations that attempt to gain access to political power in order to promote a single-item agenda. Examples include the National Rifle Association, the American Association of Retired Persons, the National Organization of Women, etc. Some would say that these interest groups are more important in Texas than elsewhere because of our part-time legislature and the time constraints imposed upon legislative activity by the state constitution. Interest groups are also strongest when there is only one dominant party in power.
LOBBYISTS: high-powered advocates supported by interest groups or other organizations within the government or private sector who serve as liaisons between their clients and the elected members of the state government. Lobbyists often know more about bills under consideration and other matters than do members of the legislature themselves, thus they have information to offer elected officials and can use that for bargaining leverage.