My apologies for this
not being that terribly detailed or organized.
I hope this helps you study. If
you have questions, you are always welcome to ask in office hours, after class,
or via email.--KTH
Key Words and Concepts:
A Definitional Review
Abrahamic Covenant: Promise made by God to Abraham to “make your descendants as numerous as the sands on the seashore” and to give him and his descendants the Promised Land of Canaan
Adoptionism: Christological heresy that asserts that a man named Jesus was “adopted” as the Son of God at some point in his earthly ministry because of his special merit and holiness; discounts the divinity of Christ
Albigensians: Also known as Cathars; heretical group known for a Gnostic-like faith with a hierarchy consisting of the perfect, the believers, and those who were still on the outside of the Cathar faith; translated the bible into the vernacular; rejected all symbols, the incarnation and the Catholic sacraments; Catholics were considered diabolical; practiced an ascetic lifestyle
Alexander the Great: Conqueror of the
Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109): Author of Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man); developed a “proof” for God along the lines of “God is that than which nothing greater may be thought”; also developed the satisfaction theory of atonement; known for faith before understanding “I believe so that I may understand.”
Antiochus IV: Seleucid ruler of
Apologists: 2nd century defenders of orthodox Christian faith against pagan attacks
Apostles: literally “those who are sent;” the term usually is applied to the 11 faithful members of Jesus’ band of disciples, Matthias (the one chosen to replace Judas who betrayed Jesus) and Paul (missionary to the Gentiles)
Apostles’ Creed: Ancient Roman baptismal rite c. 150 AD; earliest known Christian creed; does not address the relationship of the persons of the Trinity or of the natures of Christ
Apostolic Succession: The authority of the bishops is
valid if they can trace their spiritual lineage back to one of the Apostles of
Jesus Christ. Thus, for example, if
Peter ordained the next bishop of
Arian Heresy: Christological heresy arising in
Aristotle: Greek philosopher, student of Plato, whose works made a reappearance in the West in the 12th and 13th centuries and influenced such thinkers as Thomas Aquinas; his philosophy was largely based upon empirical evidence rather than high speculation; universals do not exist, only man-made categories; inductive reasoning gets us from the base things to the higher things
Athanasius: Bishop
of
Augustine of
Augustine: Bishop of Hippo (354-430); most
influential Christian theologian until Thomas Aquinas in the 13th
century. Author of The Confessions; The City of
Augustine’s Theory of Just War: Five-step process to determining whether a fight or war is justly waged: 1) must be waged by those with proper authority 2) must have the aim of restoring peace and preserving justice 3) love, not malice, must be the motive 4) must have a reasonable chance of success 5) social benefit must be the goal, not retribution or vengeance
Avignon Papacy (Babylonian Captivity of the Church 1309-1377): Period in which the papacy relocated from Rome to Avignon in France, under the protection of the French king; popes during this time were generally instruments of the French monarch; marked by increases in papal taxes to finance papal wars, absenteeism and extended periods of vacancy in ecclesiastical offices; revival of simony; pluralism in holding benefices
Barbarians: Greek term applied to the Germanic tribes
from Central and North Europe who invaded the ancient imperial territories in
the 5th century and eventually sacked the City of
Benedict of Nursia (480-550):
Founder of Western Monasticism and author of the Rule of St. Benedict. Founded several convents across
Black Death: Another name for the bubonic plague that
swept through
Canon Law: Official law of the Church—usually a hodgepodge of Roman Law and conciliar decrees and other episcopal ordinances; codified and compiled by various individuals over the
centuries;
Catholic: universal, ecumenical, common throughout the entire world
Charlemagne: King of the Franks, crowned Holy Roman
Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day 800; consolidated his power over much
of
Christ: Greek word meaning “the Anointed One,” translation of “Messiah,” applied very early to Jesus of Nazareth, founder of Christianity
Christendom: term applied to
Clerical Celibacy: the demand that a priest or bishop remain single and not engage in sexual intercourse in order to fully devote his life to God’s service
College of Cardinals: body of Church officials
charged with the responsibility of administering major offices of the Church in
Conciliarism: movement that began in the late 14th/early 15th century that asserted councils were superior to popes and had the right to depose popes and define doctrines for the Church
Concordat of
Confessors: Those who were tortured during the Decian persecutions (c. 250) and did not renounce their faith; they were not killed for their faith, because Decius did not wish to make heroes of the martyrs
Council of
Council of
Council of
Council of
Creation: The one, omnipotent God spoke creation into being from nothing. All things are made by Him and will have their end in Him.
Crusades: A series of wars or expeditions to the Holy
Land between 1095 and 1270 to recapture the
Cyprian of
David: King of
Dialectical Method: Notable tool of Scholasticism; philosophical and theological arguments were based upon the resolution of two or more competing and seemingly contradictory positions on the same topic
Disciples: literally “followers;” the term usually is applied to the 12 members of Jesus’ inner-circle
Divine Office: A series of daily prayers revolving around the seven canonical hours of Matins/Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers and Compline; the chief task of all Benedictine monks was to pray the Divine Office daily
Doctrine: Authoritative Church teaching, but not so rigid that it cannot be modified as time passes and the need arises for clarifications
Dogmas: Those articles of faith that are essential to believe in order to be a Christian; these cannot be altered without falling into heresy or infidelity
Dominic (1170-1221): Founder of the Order of
Preachers in response to the heretical movements in and around southern
Donatists: followers of Donatus, 3rd c. heretical bishop who asserted the need for absolute purity on the part of church leaders in order for the sacraments to be effective. Broke unity of the Catholic Church because of their separation and withdrawal from the orthodox fold; wished to hold those who lapsed under the persecutions to a very very high standard of readmission into the church. attended by bishops from across the empire. All bishops are invited to attend, but not all (especially the Western ones) make it every time
Ecumenical: universal, catholic; usually used in reference to the first seven empire-wide councils of the church.
Episcopal: of or relating to the office of
bishop. The episcopal authority of the
pope of
Essenes: Ascetic (strict, austere, monkish) Jewish party, not large in numbers. John the Baptist may have been a member of this sect. For them, Messiah was to be heralded by the strict observance of the Law and by living a pure, perfect life
Excommunication: ecclesiastical punishment that bars the excommunicated from receiving the sacraments of the Church
Filioque: word meaning “and the Son”; inserted into the Nicene Creed first in Spain and then gaining acceptance at Charlemagne’s court and becoming the norm in the West; major source of friction between East and West, because the West acted unilaterally and not in council with East
Francis of Assisi (1182-1226): Founder of the Order of Friars Minor (the Franciscans); known for having received the stigmata and preaching even to animals; pursued poverty as a means to holiness; the order was recognized by Innocent III in 1210
Free Will: Ability of human beings to choose what they will without coercion. Augustine’s version of free will is that we can choose to do only what we will to do (we cannot choose opposite of what we will). Pelagius’ version of free will is that we can choose to do or not to do what we will (we can choose opposite of what we will)
Friars and Preachers: Franciscans and Dominicans
Gelasius I (492-96): Pope who defined the “two powers”-one sacred authority and one secular power. Claimed the supremacy of the pope and the ability of the pope to depose emperors
General Epistles: Hebrews, James, 1-2 Peter, 1-2-3 John, Jude; epistles that made it into the canon of the New Testament but were not authored by Paul or one of Paul’s followers
Gentiles: non-Jews; make up the majority of
Christians by the beginning of the 2nd century—the loss of majority
status of the Jews in Christianity meant that Christianity lost official
toleration by the
Gnosticism: a wide-spread movement/teaching that centered around a supposed “secret knowledge” passed from Jesus to the Apostles to their selected pupils. Dualistic worldview—good/spiritual and evil/material. Christ was not human, only seemed to be. Human beings must break the cycle of imprisonment of the divine sparks in us all by the attainment of this secret knowledge
Gospel of John: the Fourth Gospel, written later than the rest and containing a higher Christology, emphasizing the divinity of Jesus (the incarnate Logos) and his pre-existence; also source of later Christian anti-Judaism and anti-Semitism, given its emphasis of the Jews’ role in Christ’s execution
Grace: the unmerited favor of God; a blessing or help that is given not on the basis of one’s merit but is completely undeserved
Gratian: one of the
most prominent compilers of canon law in the 12th century; known for
his compilation called the Decretum or Decretalis Gratiani
Great Schism (1054): Mutual breaking off of communion between Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Churches; the pope and the patriarch of Constantinople mutually excommunicated each other and severed ties between the two halves of the empire; various doctrinal differences lead up to this such as the disputes over icons, the insertion of the filioque in the creed, and primacy of the Roman bishop
Gregorian Chant: Musical style developed in the Churches c. 6th century, attributed to Gregory I; basis for all Western church music for the next 1000 years
Gregory I (590-604): First pope from a monastic
background, had served as papal ambassador to
Gregory VII (Hildebrand) (1021-1085): Pope largely responsible for the reform movement of the 11th century and the assertion of papal power over the emperor in the investiture crisis of 1076; also extended church rules on clerical celibacy and against simony
Hellenistic Jews: Those Jews who adopted Greek culture and philosophy
Henry IV: Emperor who was forced by Gregory VII to repent of his decision to invest bishops in his territory with the symbols of their office
Heresy: According to 13th c. theologian Robert Grosseteste, “an opinion chosen by human perception contrary to holy Scripture, publicly avowed and obstinately defended.”—generally, doctrinal error, something opposed to orthodoxy
Holy Roman Empire: political unit with origins in Charlemagne’s empire and continuing off and on till 1806 in Central Europe throughout most of what is currently Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, etc…
Homoiousios: “of similar substance”—attempt by Constantine’s son and successor Constantius to mollify both semi-Arians and Trinitarians led him to propose that the Father and the Son were homoiosios, having like substances, but not co-equal with each other
Homoousios: consubstantial, of the same substance as—thus the Creed of Nicaea affirms that God the Father and God the Son are homoousios, of the same substance or essence, thus both are equally God
Hypostatic
Iconoclasm: movement that sought to destroy icons in churches, shrines, holy places, and public buildings, etc. because of their misuse leading to idolatry; sought to return to more ancient symbols of Christianity such as the Eucharistic elements, the Christograms, the Cross, the Bible/Open Book, the fish, and others.
Icons: images (painted or sculpted) of Jesus, the saints, and other holy figures
Ignatius of Antioch: first century bishop, defender of the Virgin Birth, the three-fold division of ecclesiastical office (deacon, priest, bishop), the superiority of bishops to priests, the holiness of the catholic Church, the first to use the term “catholic” to refer to the Church
Indulgences: certificates or decrees that are meant to substitute for time in purgatory—at first awarded for performance of holy acts, later awarded for a fee
Innocent III (pope from 1198-1216): Pope whose tenure
of office was marked by the rise of the papacy to the peak of its temporal and
spiritual power; Innocent became feudal lord over vast portions of
Inquisitions of Heretical Depravity: Originally localized, episcopal investigations into heresy, usually led by Dominican friars; often resulted in punishments such as imprisonment, wearing of distinctive clothing, fasting, and in extreme cases death, for heretics; later would become associated with torture and murder due to the excesses of Innocent IV and the Spanish Inquistion
Interdiction: A nation-wide excommunication or suspension of the sacraments (except baptism and extreme unction)
Investiture Crisis (1076): Dispute between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV over who should have the power to invest bishops with the symbols of their office—results in Henry’s excommunication and subsequent contrition; papal victory is short-lived as Henry returns with a vengeance after his penance is through
Irenaeus of
Jesus of
Justinian (527-565): Byzantine Emperor who fully
achieved symphonia in the East, re-conquered parts of
the West; codified the ancient Roman Law into the
Justinian Code; presided over the building of the Hagia
Sophia cathedral in
Lateran Council IV (1215): Council that dogmatized transubstantiation; established episcopal inquisitions to ferret out heresy; disallowed new monastic orders under new rules; required cathedral schools for the poor; barred clergy from gaming or hunting or theatre-going; required distinctive clothing for Muslims and Jews; barred use of relics without papal approval; required regular preaching from the bishops; required at least an annual confession/penance and communion
Leo I: Pope from c. 440-460, known for his dealings with the barbarians to preserve the city of Rome; very influential in the Council of Chalcedon’s definition of the person of Christ; first to make a scriptural argument for papal supremacy based upon Petrine Authority
Logos: the Divine Word, or reason; that which orthodoxy affirms is incarnate in Jesus Christ
Magna Carta (1215): Document submitted by the English barons to King John as demands for their rights and privileges against the Crown; John was forced to sign the document and submit to their demands; later John finds England under a papal interdict and then submits to Innocent III as his feudal lord
Marcion: 2nd century heretic who was the first to draw up a proposed Christian canon, which included most of the Gospel of Luke and 10 of Paul’s epistles; rejected all of the Old Testament as rubbish for Christians; believed that the God of the Jews and the God of Jesus Christ were two distinct, the former evil and the latter good. Irenaeus and others in the orthodox fold begin efforts to formalize a lengthier canon of their own which includes the Old Testament and all of the current 27 books of the New Testament.
Martyrs: literally “witnesses,” Those who die for
their faith rather than renounce it under threat of punishment or
execution.
Mass as True Sacrifice: Though Christ’s sacrifice at
Modalism (Sabellianism): Christological heresy that asserts that the terms Father, Son and Holy Spirit are used merely to indicate the “modes” in which God appears to people; in other words, there is no distinction between the persons of the Trinity, and thus the humanity of Christ is denied
Monasticism: A reaction to the growing popularity of Christianity and its concomitant moral decline, monasticism is a means of pursuing special holiness through austere communal or hermit-like living, private devotions, prayers and hard work or study
Monophysitism: Christology that believes there is only one divine nature in Christ, no human nature; some Monophysite churches still exist in North Africa and the Near East
Moses: The servant of God appointed to deliver the
Hebrew slaves from
Neoplatonism: an early revival of Plato’s philosophy professing the existence of only One God from which all things come and to which all things hope to return. Evil is the absence of good, a turning away or moving away from the One God; the further one moves away from the One God, the more evil one is
Nero: Roman emperor (c. 64-68 AD) who began first systematic persecution against Christians; blamed a large-scale fire in Rome on them and thus trumped up charges against them of “abominations” and “hatred of mankind” (e.g., cannibalism, sexual immorality, atheism, and treason against the empire)—these reasons for persecution would be repeated again and again as later emperors also engage in their own persecutions against the Christians
Nestorius: Bishop of
Constantinople (c. 428-), condemned for heresy for his
denial of Mary as Theotokos and for his
two-person/two-nature Christology; Nestorian Churches still survive today in
parts of the Middle East,
New Covenant: The Covenant between God and all human beings initiated by the saving ministry of Jesus Christ, his death, and resurrection. Also a term used to refer to the New Testament, the 27 books of the exclusively Christian scriptures
Nicene Creed or Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed: The creed promulgated by the Council of Constantinople in 381 and still recited in Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches on Sundays and other Feast Days—contains an elaborate definition of the Trinity and includes articles on the Holy Spirit, the Church, Baptism, and Resurrection, as well as the articles on God the Father and God the Son found in the original Creed of Nicaea
Nominalism: Philosophical position associated with the thought of Aristotle; denies the existence of universal forms and believes that the only universals that do exist are the human-made names/categories (i.e., “species”) we create to organize our world
Old Covenant:
The Covenant between God and Abraham that extends from Abraham to
Origianl Sin: the doctrine that after the Fall of Man, all human beings are born innately sinful and are in need of redemption from their first breath; they can do nothing good of their own accord, and whatever good they do do is the result of the assistance of divine grace—traditional Catholic theology will eventually propose that original sin is removed in the waters of baptism
Orthodoxy: right doctrine or right praise; correct belief (as opposed to heterodoxy, or incorrect belief, doctrine, or praise)
Orthopraxy: right practice
Paul: The first Christian missionary; founder of several churches in Asia Minor and Greece; author of numerous epistles in what is now the Christian New Testament; primary source of early Christian theology
Pauline Epistles: Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1-2 Thessalonians, 1-2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon. Also includes Ephesians and Colossians, though these are not believed to have been written by Paul personally, but probably by one of his followers.
Pelagianism: the philosophy of Pelagius, 4th century monk who argued that it was possible that human beings could will not to sin and thus that grace was not absolutely necessary to salvation
Penetcost: the day on which the Holy Spirit baptized the Apostles with “tongues of fire”; the beginning of the Christian Church is traditionally marked from this point
Penitential system: developed by Cyprian of Carthage as a means of restoring the lapsed under moderate terms; requires the confession of sins and doing of penance (redemptive good works) before absolution (forgiveness) is granted by the bishop
Persecutions: systematic or sporadic efforts to punish Christians for their supposed crimes, torture them, or kill them for their “crimes” against humanity and the empire
Peter Abelard (1079-1142): Developed the theory of Exemplary Atonement or Moral Influence Theory; also perfected the dialectical method of scholasticism
Peter: the “Prince of the Apostles,” martyred at
Petrine Primacy: the doctrine that the Roman bishop (pope) has a special place in the Christian church to settle theological and ecclesiastical disputes; the pope is “first among equals”
Pharisees: Jewish party devoted to strict observance of the Law; primarily Rabbis and teachers of the Law; usually attracted followers from the lower and middle-classes; anti-Roman; acknowledged the importance of the Talmud (commentary on the Law); acknowledged the “new” doctrines of angels, the resurrection, spirits, etc. Messiah was to come when the chosen people were completely obedient to every letter of the law.
Pilgrimages: spiritual trips to a specific shrine or shrines or holy sites, usually with a penitential purpose or seeking some special favor, such as healing or other personal blessing
Predestination: the doctrine that God chooses, either before the Creation of the world or after the Fall of Man, those who will be saved (and possibly those who will be damned as well); all things are completely controlled by God; nothing happens that is not part of God’s plan or his will; therefore God may share some responsibility for what appears to us as evil
Purgatory: Intermediate state after death between heaven and hell where the souls of those with venial (minor) sins to purge will suffer and be purified for heaven; a place where penance is to be done after death
Radical Monotheism: The belief that there is only one God who exists and is to be worshipped. Any other gods purported to exist are false and to worship them is idolatry. Distinguished from henotheism, the worship of one God while still acknowledging the existence of others.
Realism: Philosophical position associated with Plato that believes in the reality of universal forms apart from any specific object; we recognize that each particular object belongs to a real universal species in which the particular object participates
Redemptive History: the idea that all events in human affairs have a purpose in a supernatural plan of salvation; God orchestrates all events toward the goal of redemption/completion/salvation of all creation
Relics: holy objects (e.g. parts of saints’ bodies or possessions) believed to have special powers
Rule of
Sacraments: tangible or visible signs of invisible grace; the rite of baptism and the Eucharist are the oldest sacraments of the Church; seven in all would be recognized by the Church: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Marriage, Holy Orders (ordination), and Extreme Unction (Last Rites)—the true Church is where the sacraments are available for the faithful to partake of; effectiveness or validity of the sacraments depends on the grace of Christ, not upon the holiness of the ministering priest, thus they are effective ex opere operato, by virtue of the work alone
Sadducees: Jewish party that controlled the
Satisfaction Theory of Atonement: Jesus’ perfect life of obedience to God the Father restored God’s honor; Jesus’ voluntary crucifixion for the sake of his fellow human beings satisfied humanity’s offense to God and earned Jesus an overabundance of merit which could be transferred to human beings to cover their sinfulness
Scholasticism: theological/philosophical thought reaching its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries; used reason to illuminate the revealed truths of Scripture and Christian tradition; systematized and organized Christian teachings and analyzed their significance and implications; built largely upon Platonic and later Aristotelian thought
Simony: buying or selling ecclesiastical office; so-called after Simon the Magician who sought to buy the power of the Holy Spirit in Acts 8
Storehouse of Merits of the Saints: “repository” of merit gained by especially holy men and women (martyrs, confessors and others) to be dispensed by the Church to make up for ordinary believers’ shortcomings in good works or holiness (This doctrine is connected with the doctrines of purgatory and intercession of the saints and indulgences)
Synoptic Gospels: Matthew, Mark, and Luke—each is a narrative of Jesus’ life, stressing different aspects (Matthew emphasizing Jesus’ Davidic lineage and his unique Messiahship, Mark writing to Gentiles to convince them that Jesus is the Messiah, and Luke also writing to Gentiles emphasizing Jesus’ unique ministry to the poor, the oppressed, and the weak)
The Fall of Man: The sin of Adam and Eve (the first humans) causes them to become aware of good and evil and thus to fall from innocence, because they are now like God. God curses them and expels them from the Garden of Eden. Their choice to disobey God’s command not to eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil results in the need for redemption.
Theodosius I: Emperor of
Theology: rational thought about God
Theory of Exemplary Atonement or Moral Influence Theory: God is love and humans have sinned. To bring humans back to God, God sent Jesus as a moral exemplar so sinful human beings could follow his example and thus be reconciled to God
Theotokos: Technical term applied to the Virgin Mary meaning “God-Bearer” or “Mother of God”—Implies the full divinity of Jesus Christ
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): Dominican scholar known for reintroducing Aristotle to the Western theological world. Significant works include his massive Summa Theologica and the Summa Contra Gentiles, perhaps the crowning works of high medieval scholasticism
Transubstantiation: doctrine that the bread and wine of the Eucharist are really and literally transformed into the body and blood of Christ; the appearance of bread and wine is mere accident
Trinity: the Three-in-one Godhead, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, co-eternal and co-existent; doctrine of the Trinity fully defined at the Council of Nicaea.
Unam Sanctam: bull issued by Boniface VIII that declared all temporal powers were subject to the pope’s authority; no temporal power had right to judge spiritual power; salvation was found only in submission to the Pope
Veneration: reverence due to the saints and their icons
Waldensians: Heretical group founded by Peter Waldo encouraging extreme poverty; rejected oaths, war, property, veneration of the saints, masses for the dead, relics, images, tithes, indulgences, capital punishment, and purgatory; attacked Catholic clergy as unholy and impure; rejected the sacraments except for baptism and communion; believed a Donatist-like doctrine of the purity of the Church; sought to return the Church to simplicity; preached without papal warrant or authorization
Worship: adoration and reverence due only to God
Zealots: Jewish party devoted to violent, political
overthrow of the Roman imperial power in