From Constantine to Augustine—Christianity’s Formative Years

 

With the beginning of the 4^th century and the succession of Constantine to the imperial throne, significant changes occur in the shape of Christianity.  We’ll discuss a few of them today.

 

1. Constantine comes to the imperial throne after success over his rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in 312.
1. Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea, records the triumph of Constantine in his Life of Constantine, a somewhat hagiographical work, but grounded in historical fact
2. Eusebius is also the first known church historian and celebrates the rise of Constantine as a sign of divine favor
3. Before the battle, Constantine seeks divine guidance (from any available deity)—sees a sign in the clouds above the sun; this sign is the Christogram, or chi-rho

                                                               i.      Constantine’s dad had been a worshipper of the Unconquered Sun

                                                             ii.      Constantine probably had monotheistic leanings learned from daddy

                                                            iii.      The sign came with a banner reading “In hoc signo vincet,” “In this sign, conquer.” 

4. Constantine later that night has a vision of Christ himself, who instructs him to decorate his battle armaments with that sign as a means of protection
5. Constantine triumphs militarily over Maxentius, becomes co-emperor with Licinius; becomes emperor of the full empire a few years later
6. Capital of the empire is eventually moved to Byzantium, renamed Constantinople, leaving Rome without any political head
1. After becoming emperor, Constantine and Licinius issue the Edict of Milan (a.k.a. the Edict of Toleration) in 313
1. Christianity is given official permission to exist alongside the pagan and other religions in the empire
2. Necessity of the regulating religious matters in order to serve the common interests of the empire—toleration a means to appeasing all the deities and receiving favor from them all
3. Restoration of previously confiscated property from Christians and the Church
2. The Arian Heresy Arises
1. Arius, controversial church leader, probably from North Africa, studied in Antioch, Syria, under Lucian of Antioch, a source of several heresies

                                                               i.      Lucian tended to emphasize humanity of Jesus over his divinity, as was common in Antiochene circles

                                                             ii.      Lucian tries to find a way to avoid making Jesus himself God and tries to avoid adoptionism and modalism (Sabellianism), as well

                                                            iii.      Adoptionism had been condemned by Synod of Antioch in 268

2. Arguments in Arius’ theology

                                                               i.      “There was a time when the Son was not”

1.      Jesus Christ was a creature of God, not the eternal Son of God (Logos)

2.      Therefore Jesus Christ was in some sense subordinate to the Father

3.      Because God is perfect, there can be no change in Him

4.      God would have had to change had Jesus been of the same co-eternal substance as God the Father, and thus God would be imperfect

5.      Therefore the incarnate Logos is not fully divine, but is some exalted creature of God

a.       Father and Son are different in that the Father is eternal and immutable, Son is created before all other things and is mutable and capable of suffering

b.      Appeal was made to the passages pointing to Jesus’ submissiveness to the Father

3. Arius’ theology is challenged by the orthodox Bishop Alexander of Alexandria

                                                               i.      By making Jesus something less than fully divine, salvation was at stake

                                                             ii.      Arius and his followers responded that by denying Jesus’ full humanity, salvation was at stake

4. Call for an ecumenical council is issued by Constantine, all bishops of the empire are ordered to attend

                                                               i.      Most eastern bishops did attend, most western bishops did not (318 total in attendance, 28 were Arians; Arius not a bishop, and therefore not allowed to attend the council’s two-month session)

                                                             ii.      Council convened at Nicaea in 325, Constantine himself presiding

1.      Imperial direction of the Church

2.      Assumption of a quasi-priestly role for the emperor (‘bishop of the bishops’)

                                                            iii.      Council’s primary task is to straighten out the problems arising from the conflict between Arius and Alexander—The empire could not withstand disunity on matters religious—council took on other tasks, as well (see Story of Christian Theology, p. 152)

5. Chief result of the Council is the formulation of the Nicene Creed (later modified by other councils)

                                                               i.      Under Constantine’s own proposal, the Council defined the relationship of the Father and the Son as homoousios, i.e., consubstantial with one another—Constantine likely was advised by his chaplain Hosius or Eusebius or some other theologian—Father and Son both share the identical essential attributes of deity and eternality and omnipotence, etc.

                                                             ii.      Nicene Creed does not include articles on the Church or the Holy Spirit

1.      Nicene wording is designed to demonstrate falsehood of Arianism

2.      Begotten, not made; of one substance with the Father…

                                                          iii.      Arius is deposed from his church and exiled by the emperor as a heretic

1.      first time that a heretic is punished by the secular authority

2.      Constantine also requires all bishops to affirm the new creed or be deposed and exiled

3.      Two influential bishops, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea, refused to sign the creed; ensured that controversy would continue

                                                          iv.      Nicene Creed becomes basic statement of faith of orthodox Christianity

4. Constantine reinstates Arius in 332
1. Pressure from secret Arians and Arian sympathizers forces Constantine to concede to their demands
2. Constantine orders Athanasius of Alexandria to reinstate Arius

                                                              i.      Athanasis refuses on principle that the Arians were antichrists

                                                            ii.      “Peace if possible, but truth at any cost”

 

Establishment of the Canon—

Springs from controversy with Marcion, a heretic claiming that the God of the Old Testament (YHWH) was not the same God of Jesus Christ

                --YHWH was vindicctive and petty; World was evil, therefore an evil God created it

                --God of Jesus Christ was loving and mercifful

                --Therefore they could not be the same God<

Marcion rejects Old Testament as a valid Scripture for Christians, and also rejects any early Christian writings that rely too much on Old Testament concepts and ideas and legalisms

                --Marcion’s canonn consists of an abridged portion of the Gospel of Luke and 10 Pauline Epistles

                --Marcion’s challlenge => Church trying to define who had the truth and who does not => development of an extended canon consisting of the OT and the NT writings; new creeds; and the Episcopal office.

                                --True orthodox believers were those who acccepted the official canon

                                                --Early Christian canon consisted of the Heebrew Scriptures (OT)

                                                --Eventual adoption of Paul’s epistles, thee four Gospels and the general epistles

                                --First formal list of the current 27 bookss of the NT appear in Athanasius’ Easter Letter in 367 AD.  Later Christian councils and synods would affirm this list, the last at Carthage in 397 AD

 

Development of the Creeds

 

Apostle’s Creed likely developed from a Roman baptismal formula, c. 150 AD. 

--Baptismal candidates are asked questions about their beliefs in God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit

--Creeds raise questions of relationship between faith and belief and between belief and commitment, etc.

--Creeds start off as relatively simple statements of faith; become more complex as the need to further fine-tune orthodoxy arises

 

Establishment of Episcopal Office

 

Question of authority—Where is authority located?  Who may rightfully decide doctrinal disputes and define orthodoxy as distinct from heterodoxy? 

                --Apostolic Succession—(spiritual) llineage of a bishop must be traceable to the original Apostles

                                --Throws a kink in the Gnostics’ claim to ppossess secret knowledge necessary for salvation, because the Apostles and the Apostles’ students have not received this knowledge

                                --True bishop is one who defends the apostoolic faith

 

Constantine and the Donatist Controversy

 

Christians have been freed to participate in Roman government and public activities; quickly gain an ascendency in the imperial court

 

Constantine believes a promotion of Christianity will be useful in promoting social peace and harmony and unity throughout the empire

 

Unity is threatened when theological controversies break out in various parts of the empire.  The first is in North African city of Carthage

                --A group of Christians in 311 refuses to rrecognize the consecration of Caecilian as their bishop, because he is consecrated by Felix of Aptunga, who had been a traitor to the faith during the Diocletian p ersecutions

                --This group elects DDonatus as a rival bishop

                                --Donatist groupiies insist the church must be pure/holy

                                --Therefore the sacraments administered by impure/unholy bishops or priests are ineffective and void

                                --Therefore, Caecilian’s consecration as thheir bishop was null and void

                --Roman bishop investigates controversy, ruules against Donatists

                --Donatists appeaal to Constantine; Constantine rejects their appeal and attempts to suppress them by force from 316-321

                --Donatists contiinue to gain converts and become majority in North Africa; not eradicated until the Muslims invade and conquer

                --Donatism will bbe dealt with more forcefully theologically by St. Augustine

 

Monasticism Makes Its Appearance

 

Spread of Christianity’s fashionableness under Constantine and his successors => diminished commitment and zeal

                --Many Christians dissatisfied with the loww morality and lack of real faith withdraw to the deserts to live either as hermits or as members of an ascetic religious community

                --St. Anthony of Egypt (c. 251-356) known as the father of monasticism; lived as a hermit

                --Other men followed his lead; St. Basil thhe Great (St. Basil of Caesarea) withdraws to the deserts; returns to civilization as bishop of Caesarea; writes the Rule of St. Basil which is basis of Eastern Monasticism even today

 

Constantine’s Successors

Both Constantine and his successors support the building of Christian churches, encourage a more elaborate Mass with less congregational participation, grant special favors to Christians over pagans

 

Constantine dies in 337, having been baptized an Arian; empire is divided among his three sons--

Constantius, his son, gains full power in 350, rules till 361; rules as an Arian—(see discussion of Athanasius and the conflicts with Arianism)

Julian the Apostate (361-363) returns to paganism, persecutes Christians for a time

Valens

Theodosius (c. 373-

                --Declares Christianity the official religiion of the empire

                --Convenes the Second Ecumenical Council inn 381 (Council of Constantinople)

                                --Apollinarianism> (Jesus had human body and soul, but human spirit was replaced by the Divine Logos) was condemned

                                --Niceno-Constanttinopolitan Creed formalized; full doctrine of Trinity