Final Exam Definitional Review
Remember that the exam will be
half from the second part of the course and half from the first part of the
course. Most of the questions over the
first half you have seen either in identical form or in similar form on your
previous exam. So, please use your
former review for the midterm and your old test papers to study for the
cumulative section of the final. The
following covers only the key terms of the second portion of the course. Good luck and take care. It’s been a whirlwind tour of the Christian
Church’s history and thought, but I hope you have enjoyed it. It has been a
pleasure to serve as your teacher during this brief summer session. –KTH
Nominalism: philosophical system based upon
Aristotle’s philosophy that understands there to be no universal
realities. Only the names of things are
real; all categories are human constructs and do not correspond to an eternal heavenly
reality—chief leaders in the nominalist movement
include John Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. Philosophical school also largely responsible
for the divorce of faith and reason and all that that entails.
John
Wycliff: 14th century English reformer,
defender of English nationalism, advocate of a vernacular bible—all authority
comes from God; if spiritual authority is abused, then it should be up to the
secular powers to correct those abuses by removing ecclesiastics from office,
if necessary
John
Hus: 14th
century Czech reformer, one-time president of the University of Prague;
advocate of Wycliffite ideas; preacher of scriptural
authority alone above popes; tried and condemned at the Council of Constance
Council
of Constance:
1414-1417, general council called by the emperor and other secular officials
when the realization was had that the papal schism was causing catastrophe in
Christendom; first council to see secular officials sit and vote alongside
ecclesiastical officials; first council in which voting was conducted by
nationality; deposed two popes, another stepped aside, and elected Martin V as
pope; condemned John Hus
Renaissance:
cultural
transformation in which the classics of Greece and Rome are “reborn,” in
contrast to the “Dark Ages” from the fall of the Roman Empire to the middle 15th-century;
renewal of the arts, literature, music, science, textual criticism,
inventiveness, etc.; dated from c. 1450-1648
Humanism: philosophical and cultural
movement that sought to return to the sources of things human—arts, philosophy,
languages, and literature—a devotion to man’s accomplishments and an elevation
of the importance of this worldly life over the life of the hereafter;
possibility of discovering truth and goodness and beauty in the things of this
world; leading humanists include Lorenzo Valla (the one who proved the Donation
of Constantine was a forgery) and Erasmus of Rotterdam (first publisher of a
critical Greek New Testament text, satirist and Catholic scholar-reformer)
Gutenberg
Printing Press:
c. 1450 invention that changed the world almost overnight. Allows for quick dissemination of ideas
through the written page that is now easily copied
Martin
Luther (1483-1546): peasant
monk and university professor whose personal experiences of sinfulness and
anxiety over salvation led to an attack on the sale of indulgences and papal
authority and who became the central figure in the early years of what becomes
known as the Protestant Reformation; translated the bible into German; abolished
the episcopal office; taught the validity of Christian vocations apart from the
monastery or clerical life; defined new ideas of sola scriptura, sola fide, and
sola gratia and justification by faith alone
Sola
Fide: Protestant
doctrine that teaches one is justified (made righteous) by one’s faith alone in
the work and righteousness of Christ; a central tenet of early Lutheranism and
most of Protestantism after him
Sola
Gratia: Protestant
doctrine that salvation is by grace alone; God imputes his grace to sinful
humanity, not because of any works that they have done but solely out of his
love for them and/or his divine decree that they should be saved for his glory
Sola
Scriptura: Protestant
doctrine that asserts the supremacy of Scripture in all matters of doctrine and
morality. Basis of Protestant emphasis
on the preaching of the Word of God as central to the liturgy
Leo
X: Renaissance
pope who condemns Luther and his teachings
Diet
of Worms (1521):
imperial assembly where Luther is brought before the Emperor Charles V to
testify about his beliefs and is asked
to recant; Luther refuses to recant, “Here I Stand, I can do no other.”
Ninety-Five
Theses (31 October 1517):
Luther’s challenge to debate the legitimacy of indulgences and papal authority.
Their posting on the castle church door at Wittenberg on Halloween of 1517
marks the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
Protestant:
term used first
at the Diet of Worms to describe all followers of Luther; indicates their
protest against the Catholic Church
Peasants’
Revolt of 1524:
peasant rebellion against German princes in Lutheran territories, based upon
their assumption that Christian freedom and equality applied to the secular as
well as the spiritual; Luther and the princes condemned Peasants’ Revolt for
its excessive violence and its danger to established authority—end result is
Lutheran state church, Spiritual equality alone, not secular equality
Augsburg
Confession of 1530: first
common confession of faith accepted by most Lutheran theologians and princes;
written by Philip Melanchthon, signed by leading Lutherans
Schmalkald League: Protestant alliance formed in
1531 as a protection against Charles V, Holy
Roman Emperor
Peace
of Augsburg (1555):
truce between warring Catholic and Protestant princes in Germany that settles
on the principle of “cuius region, eius religio,” or “as the
religion of the crown, so the religion of the people.” Catholics and Lutheran Protestants for the
first time can coexist (in separate territories); no room for Calvinists or
other Protestants at this time
Ulrich
Zwingli (1484-1531): Reformer
in Zurich, Switzerland, who takes Luther’s ideas further, banning all things
that are not expressly prescribed by the bible; more austere religion with a
puritanical spirit
John
Calvin (1509-1564): French
lawyer and scholar who becomes the leading reformer of Geneva, Switzerland, and
whose ideas spread quickly across Europe as Protestant refugees in Geneva begin
to return to their homelands—emphasis in his thought is on the Sovereignty of
God
Sovereignty
of God: Calvin’s
belief, like Augustine’s, that God is supreme and his will cannot be thwarted; God is in absolute control of all
that happens; this is the foundation of his teaching on predestination
Predestination: doctrine that whatever happens
has been decreed by God before Creation to happen
The
Elect: those
predestined by God to be saved
The
Reprobate: those
predestined by God to be damned
Total
Depravity:
Calvinist teaching that man is born into sin and that even his best works are
still sinful; only the grace of God can deliver man from his depravity
Unconditional
Election: Calvinist teaching that when God foreordains or
predestines someone to be saved, his decision is not based upon works or personal merit but only on God’s
inscrutable will
Limited
Atonement: Calvinist
teaching that the sacrificial efficacy of Christ’s cross is only for the elect,
not for the entire world
Irresistible
Grace: Calvinist
teaching that when the elect are offered the grace of God they cannot deny it
or choose to ignore it
Perseverance
of the Saints: Calvinist
teaching that the elect will continue in good works throughout their entire
lives; one of the signs of election
Geneva,
Switzerland:
City in which Calvin implemented his theological teachings and strict moral
standards; hotbed of reform activity for many in exile; model city for the
development of later republican governments
Institutes
of the Christian Religion:
Calvin’s major theological work, originally published in 1536, revised
extensively for the following two decades
Michael
Servetus:
heretic who denied the Trinity; fled from Catholic persecution to Geneva only
to be burned by the Calvinists
English
Reformation: process
set in motion by the desire of Henry VIII to get a divorce, marry Anne Boleyn,
and produce a male heir to the English throne
Henry
VIII: instigator
of the English Reformation; had no intention of breaking with Catholic doctrine
(had been named a Defender of the Faith in 1521 by the pope for his defense of
the sacraments against Luther); intended only a break with Rome in matters of
spiritual and temporal authority
Act
of Supremacy (1534):
English law making the monarch the Supreme Head of the Church of England;
retaining the episcopal office and apostolic succession
Elizabeth
I: English queen
responsible for the full Protestantization of England
and the 39 Articles
Mary
Tudor/Mary I/Bloody Mary:
eldest daughter of Henry VIII, queen of England who attempted to restore
Catholicism and made several martyrs of leading English Protestants; often
regarded as a traitor by Englishmen
Mary
Queen of Scots: mother
of James VI of Scotland/James I of England, persecutor of Catholics in
Scotland; eventually beheaded by Elizabeth I
Thirty-Nine
Articles (1563): definitive
statement of Anglicanism; attempt to legalize Elizabeth’s via media as
normative for the Church of England—meant to be an appeasement of both
Catholics and Protestants; recognizes sacraments of baptism and Eucharist,
apostolic succession, scriptural supremacy
William
Tyndale (d. 1536): former
English priest determined to see the bible translated into English; exiled to
Antwerp for his ideas; from there he smuggles copies of his English translation
of the New Testaments into England; eventually discovered and executed
Miles
Coverdale and the Coverdale Bible: compiler
of the first known complete edition of the English bible in 1535
Matthew’s
Bible: the work
of John Rogers in 1537; first bible (in revised form) authorized and made
available in English to all of England
Anabaptism:
loose movement
of radical reform, located primarily in Central Europe and the Low Countries; key
doctrines include a free church, believers’ baptism; church as a community of
the saved; pacifism and withdrawal from the world—first appears in 1525 with
baptism of Conrad Grebel and his followers in Zurich
Anabaptist: term meaning “rebaptizer”; derogatorily applied to radical reformers who
desired to create a completely free church composed only of the true believers
who had made a profession of faith in Christ
Separation
of Church and State:
Anabaptist doctrine that the church should have nothing to do with the state
because the world was wicked and the coercive force of the state was against
Christ’s teachings; church should be free of all government control and should
not concern itself in governmental affairs
Munster
Rebellion (1534-35):
sparked by a chiliastic movement led by Jan Matthijs
and Jan of Leiden; results in Anabaptism becoming synonymous with radicalism
and fanaticism
Schleitheim Confession (1527):
first Anabaptist
common confession of faith emphasizing: discipleship; love/pacifism; congregational
authority; and separation of church and state
Congregational
Authority: Anabaptist
doctrine that the local congregation in assembly should vote together on
matters of doctrine and moral discipline; no hierarchy of clergy exists
Priesthood
of Believers: Protestant
teaching that ordained clergy have no special exalted status and that ordinary
believers, ordained or not, have direct access to God; Lutheran version would
say that those whose vocation it is to be ministers have a special position in
the church requiring deference (but not reverence) in doctrinal and moral
matters; Anabaptist version would say that all Christians have an absolute
right to read and interpret the bible for themselves and that doctrinal
differences and moral questions should be resolved democratically by the
congregation
Ignatius
Loyola (1491-1556): Spanish
soldier turned mystic and militant Church leader; founder of the Society of
Jesus (Jesuits); author of the Spiritual Exercises
Society
of Jesus (Jesuits): order
founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola, took vows of poverty, chastity, obedience,
and loyalty to the pope alone; became
leading advocates of education and missionary activity in four continents;
Spiritual Exercises and Jesuit spirituality become highly influential in the
Council of Trent’s decisions on Catholic reform
Council
of Trent (1545-47; 1551-52; 1562-63): most
significant general council between Nicaea in 325 and Vatican II in 1962;
embraces the Jesuit spirituality and militancy against Protestantism; rejects
all that Protestantism stands for and creates a Catholic resurgence
Mysticism:
devotional/spiritual
practice aimed at attaining a spiritual union with God
Puritanism:
English
Calvinist movement within the Anglican church desiring to purify the church of
any and all vestiges of Roman Catholicism.
Puritanism was at the center of the pilgrim journeys to America and the
Separatist movements that resulted in Baptists, Quakers, and others. Emphasizes both personal confession of faith
and public devotion to the faith—the society is established along the covenant
of grace and should reflect the will of God in its laws, its public morality
and its regular operations
Geneva
Bible: English
translation of the Bible produced by English exiles in Calvinist Geneva during
the Marian persecutions; the single-most popular English bible until the KJV makes its appearance in 1611; was amenable to the
common man and the cause of the Puritans because of its readability, its side
notes, its prefaces to each book, etc.
This was the English bible carried to America on the Mayflower
King
James Version:
English translation that transformed the English language and the English
church; was originally created as a means of supporting the bishops against the
Puritan challenges to James’ and the bishops’ rule
Divine
Right of Kings: theory
of government that the king was commissioned and empowered directly by God to
rule a particular people, thus he could exercise arbitrary and absolute power
over his subjects and could be judged by no one
Westminster
Confession/Westminster Catechisms:
Confession of faith of the Puritans written during 1642-1649 Westminster
Assembly. Both Presbyterians and
Congregationalists participated in its creation and it still remains the basis
of the more conservative branches of these Calvinist denominations’ confession
today
Thirty-Years
War (1618-1648):
Final in a series of religious warfare in Europe; end results are that
Europeans tire of fighting and consider other alternatives, such as
denominationalism and toleration for religious differences; the map of Europe
is redrawn; Calvinists are given privileges alongside Lutherans and Catholics
Denominationalism: theory of the church that though
the Christian faith is a single truth, the expressions of this truth may be
located in several different institutions, each claiming to be a legitimate
representation of the body of Christ.
Denominations are inclusive and understand that they do not hold the
entire truth to the exclusion of all other religious bodies
Sectarianism: theory of the church that considers
the Christian truth can be expressed in
one way and one way only; sects are very exclusive and usually small
organizations
Religious
Experience:
personal experience of an active grace in one’s life; conversion is not by a
doctrine of faith alone but by a real, genuine, lived out experience in the
world; later would produce the pietistic and evangelical idea that one must be “born
again” in order to be saved—regeneration must occur for someone to be a fully
functioning Christian
Enlightenment: movement in the late 17th
and 18th centuries that glorified Reason over any authority, whether
the revealed word of God or the authority of the Pope or secular authority that
ruled without consent of the governed.
Radicals of the Enlightenment (e.g., French philosophes)
would readily dismiss all revelation and miracles as unnecessary and/or
nonsense; moderate Enlightenment thinkers (e.g., Locke) would respect
revelation to the extent that it could be used to show the rationality of
Christianity and the teachings of Jesus Christ
Secularism: philosophical movement that
emerges from the Enlightenment, completely disregarding any role the church or
scripture may have had in establishing public order and public morality; the
people themselves are imbued with a democratic spirit and may decide for
themselves what is right or wrong and do not need divine assistance in doing so
Demystification
of the Universe:
brought about by modern science, such as through Galileo’s discoveries of
gravitational force and Newton’s physical laws of motion, the universe is
reduced from a world of mythical creatures and causes to a mechanized and predictable
order that operates along the patterns set out by natural law
Deism:
religious
movement that emerges from the Enlightenment acknowledging God as a Supreme
Being who, basically created a perfect world and now watches passively as
history unfolds; nature is where he is revealed, not in scripture or in papal
authority. God does not perform
miracles, does not intervene in history and does not judge people
Jansenism:
movement in
Catholicism begun by Cornelius Jansen as a means of restoring a strong
Augustinian doctrine of sin and grace to the Catholic Church (which was
dominated by casuistic Jesuits who were willing to find ways to justify sinful
behavior and grant absolution, especially to the powerful); almost like Calvinism
in Catholic clothing
Pietism:
Movement within
the Lutheran church to spur greater devotion and genuine Christian living;
emphasizes a “rebirth” of one’s spirit; spiritual preaching, intimate community
life, etc.
Evangelicalism:
cross-denominational
movement in Protestantism that emphasizes supremacy of the Word of God,
personal confession of faith and conversion experience, and missionary zeal;
often coupled with social action (especially in the 19th century);
preaching the gospel is central act in evangelical churches
Count
Nicholas von Zinzendorf/Moravian Brethren: Centered in the Christian community of Herrnhut, becomes the first large-scale Protestant
missionary movement; spiritual living; almost sentimental religion
John
Wesley and Methodism: revival
movement in the Church of England that later becomes a separate denomination;
Wesley is its founder, follows an Arminian
(free-will) theology (contrary to the Calvinism of George Whitefield (prominent
Great Awakening revivalist in both England and in North America)
Jonathan
Edwards: Puritan
revivalist preacher from Northampton, Massachusetts; best known for his
hellfire and brimstone sermon entitled “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.”
Great
Awakening: period
of massive revival from about 1740-1760; conversions occurred because of highly
energetic and emotional revival preaching; conversions were top-down, i.e., God
acted on the sinner and converted them
Isaac
Backus: prominent
Baptist revivalist, ardent supporter of the separation of church and state as a
means of bringing the kingdom of God on earth through voluntary conversion and
devotion to the Law of God
New
Sides and Old Sides:
supporters of a converted clergy and supporters of an educated clergy,
respectively; terms emerged during the early 18th century and the
Great Awakening periods
French
Revolution:
began in 1789 with storming of the Bastille; later execution of Louis XVI and
Marie Antoinette; establishment of the First Republic and the Reign of Terror—exaltation
of Reason; attempt to expunge all priests and all other vestiges of
Christianity from France; considered the beginning of the Age of Progress
(1789-1914)
Pius
IX (pope 1846-1878):
longest-reigning pope in the entire history of the Church, responsible for
unilaterally dogmatizing the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception (Mary is
born without original sin); convenes the
First Vatican Council to define the doctrine of papal infallibility;
encourages monarchists to swing their allegiance to the papacy; lost the Papal
States and Rome to the Italian nationalists; lost Catholic influence in the
Italian government to the radical nationalists
First
Vatican Council (1870):
Church council (first major one since Trent) that was responsible for defining
papal infallibility
Syllabus
of Errors (1864):
Pius IX’s formal decree against 80 errors of
modernism, including freedom of the press, freedom of religion, socialism,
rationalism, public schools, bible societies, separation of church and state,
etc.
Para-church
organizations: groups
of Christians in the evangelical camp that unite across denominational lines
for the purpose of spreading the gospel and meeting the needs of the community;
unity is found in their commitment to the inspired Word of God
Higher
Criticism:
Originally a German academic theological method of examining the bible, using the
methods of literary criticism. Results
are astounding to those who firmly rely on the authority of scripture
alone. Points out inconsistencies,
inaccuracies, nonconformity with modern science, multiple authors of sacred
texts, etc.
Fundamentalism: conservative reactionary
movement within evangelicalism emerging as a critique of higher criticism;
firmly committed to the traditional doctrines of infallible scripture, Virgin
Birth, Resurrection, Second Coming, etc.
So-called because of the publication The
Fundamentals, written by several well-known conservative evangelical
scholars
Premillennial Dispensationalism:
theology of the end times that argues the world must become more and more corrupt
prior to the secret rapture of believers (fundamentalists take this as a cue to
missionize or “rescue” people from this horrible fate of being around after
the rapture for the Tribulation, during which the Antichrist will reign); after
the 7-year Tribulation period, Christ will come in glory and reign in an
earthly kingdom in Jerusalem for 1000 years (This is, incidentally, the theology
of such popular works as the Left Behind
series or the many, many books by Hal Lindsey, John Hagee,
Jack van Impe, etc.)
Liberation
Theology: 20th
century movement within Third-World Catholicism (and later within other
Christian denominations, as well) relying on a Marxist critique of the
privileges of the wealthy classes; God has a “preferential option for the poor”
and always sides with the poor in their conflicts with the rich
Death
of God: anti-supernaturalist theological movement flourishing in the 1960s; God had to
be, as Tillich would say, “beyond essence or existence,” so to say that God
exists is to deny his existence. God has
to be made relevant to the modern man (assumption is that the modern man will
not respond to the ancient miracles and testimonies); nothing remains but Nietzsche’s
will to power.
Open
Theism: a new
theological movement within Arminian circles that
suggests that God does not know the future (at least not in its entirety)
because the future has not yet come into being.
God is open to the “possible”; he may know all the possibilities of what
will happen, but he does not know which possibility one’s life will act upon