Exploring the applicability of electronic data retrievers as a tool for precision mapping of human behavior for Environmental Design Researchers

 

 

“Inquiry is the creation of knowledge or understanding; it is the reaching out of a human being beyond himself to a perception of what he may be or could be, or what the world could be or ought to be.”

C. West Churchman

The Design of Inquiring Systems

 

 

Introduction:

         

The need for designers to accurately assess user requirements is increasing as human dependence on artificial environments increases. When building decisions are made on a small scale, the consequences of a one series of decisions only affect a few people. However, with the scale the planning and design occurs today, thousands of people can be affected. Institutional buildings like offices, hospitals, museums, and the like cater for hundreds of people everyday. And it is the responsibility of the architect/ designer to design an environment for the reason that satisfies the basic user requirements of the setting.

Environmental Design Research provides data for the designers to use in their design works. These are data that are not readily available in the setting/environment, but are extracted and analyzed by a researcher; and then made ready-to-use form of data. By using electronic data retrievers for collecting behavior data can eliminate at least two conventional features, and they are, this will create real-time numerically precise data through non-invasive methods of data collection and reduce the man-hour spent in data collection, which can enable longer periods of observation data electronically. This method developed here in this particular research is primarily targeted to be used for data collection in therapeutic environments. But, the scope will not be limited by a single trade after developed.

For some years now, researchers from diverse domains have been exploring the effects and benefits of therapeutic environments. (Brawley, 1997; Calkins, 1988; Cohen, et al., 1988; Passini, et al., 1997) Architects are potential intermediate consumers of research about therapeutic environments. Tetreault & Passini (2003) in their paper has identified that four out of a sample of fourteen architects were interested to get hold of the missing information regarding the use of the facility and the facility and the philosophy of caregiving, including how people live and novel approaches tried elsewhere. Another architect mentioned the need for somemore information about the resident, their perceptions of the environment, and the effects of the setting on their behavior.

As elsewhere, architects, and educators share common interests and affinities as intermediate consumers of knowledge. The more accurate and accessible the knowledge is, the better is its potential as a research finding. The aim of this research is to provide data to our end-users in such a format that you need not be a researcher to avail this data, but designers/architects, if they will to, can themselves employ this to extract behavior data to their requirements.

         

History of Environment Design Research (EDR):

         

Traditionally, environmental psychology originated as an experimental-perceptual approach that characterized specific environment-behavior research. (Bonaiuto, 2000) Research on the human perspective in environmental design, planning, and architectural policy, and research on the physical environmental context of behavior may be traced back at least to the turn of the century. Systematic research on environment-behavior issues and applications began in the early 1950s. (Moore, 1985) Environment behavior research (also called as human behavior studies, ecological psychology, environment behavior studies, social psychology, etc.) or environment design research (EDR) (commonly used here in this paper referring to the same field of research as previously noted) has been instituted when in the 1960s researchers found out that there hadn’t been enough ground of research on the effects of human behavior and the surrounding. The social-psychologists and/or psychologists were not either interested or aware of the fact that behavioral research could prop up the basic design qualities of built environment. Thus EDR was born.

 

 

Definition:

        Environmental design research (EDR) is the study of the mutual relations between human beings and the physical environment at all scales, and applications of the knowledge thus gained to improving the quality of life through better informed environmental policy, planning, design, and education. (Moore, 1985)  Environmental design research can be distinguished from other kinds of research by its emphasis on the relationship between people, the physical environment, and implications for the quality of life. Environmental design research has chosen to highlight the behavioral and social dimensions of planning and design and the physical contexts for human experience and behavior, since these issues have been underemphasized by both the environmental professions and the social sciences. (Villecco & Brill, 1981)

 

 

Figure 01: Environmental Design Research (EDR) is a confluence of many parts of the social sciences and environmental professions. Adapted from Moore (1985) & Bechtel (2000)

 

 

Environment design research deals with the art as well as the science of design and environmental problem-solving. Environmental design research strives to generate knowledge useful to environmental policy, planning, and design. If inquiry into the artistic elements of design is structured into a rational and explicit research project, then it is environmental design research. (Villecco & Brill, 1981)

 

         

Theory:

          Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA) was formed in 1968. EDRA is the oldest and largest body in the world devoted to environment-behavior-design concerns. (Moore, 1985) Therefore, it is a relatively new field of study which can be contended with the idea that it is still in its embryonic stage as a branch of the social sciences. Most studies tend to be seen as specific, with no attempt to transcend their times, settings or groups, to be linked conceptually with other work, or to emphasize general Environment Behavior Researches and the mechanism operating. (Rapoport, 1997) Amos Rapoport in his article in the Handbook of Japan-United States Environment-Behavior Research: Toward a Transactional Approach presented a bitter personal dissatisfaction with the line of development this field of study has undertaken. He mentions that there is potentially inadequacies in the thought and effort in theory building in this field. For this research we need not enter the theoretical depth of this science, but rather the aim is to create a tool for researchers. As Moore, et al. (1985) stated in their book Environmental Design Research Directions: Process and Prospects:

 

Environmental design research includes basic research, applied research, and research applications. Basic research is the generation of knowledge and the discovery of phenomena, processes, and systems that are potentially significant to understanding environment-behavior interactions and to developing a general theory of people, environment, and environmental design. Basic research, unlike applied research, does not need to be justified on the basis of specific problem solving. Its application may be unclear or unpredictable but it is critical to the overall development of the field, to environmental design theory, and to a more responsive environment.

Applied research is concerned with answering specific questions relative to an immediate social policy context and problem. In applied research the question and the form of its investigation are defined by the needed application, the client’s goals, and the time frame.

Research applications are the compilation and translation of findings from both basic and applied research into specific environmental policies, plans, or designs. The recent interest in the development of design guides, environmental programs, and information dissemination are examples of research applications.

 

 

 

Figure 02: Environmental Design Research is Multi Level. (Moore, 1985)

 

The application of research to practice is critical; it is not environmental design research, however, unless it is proposed to study those techniques which are most effective in communicating research results to policy or professional applications. From the point of view of ecological psychology Bechtel (2000) has defined two ‘methods’ of research. The first being behavior specimen record and second behavior setting survey. The basic assumption of ecological psychology is that the person is not the basic unit of human behavior; instead, the most basic unit is the Behavior Setting. (Bechtel, 2000)

 

Behavior Setting:

 

All behavior must take place within some behavior setting. There is no behavior “outside” a behavior setting. The context defines and prescribes the behavior independent of individual differences; this is not to say that there are no individual differences. But it is to say that they become redirected by the setting program. Variations are so rare as to be statistically insignificant. (Bechtel, 2000)

          Regarding the validity and reliability of the data Bechtel (2000) says that validity and reliability are contained within the data collection process itself. Since observation by the researcher is matched with observations or reports from participants, unreliable data are eliminated. And, since virtually all independent sources of data are used to count behavior settings, the independent agreement of the various sources guarantees validity.

 

Research Background

 

The primary focus of this research is developing a tool for environment design researchers to be used in extracting real-time data from therapeutic physical work environment. Work environment has a profound effect on employees, work groups, and organizations. Environmental features such as lighting, temperature, noise, privacy, and work space design play a major role in the productivity, satisfaction, and health of employees and in the communication, efficiency, and effectiveness of organizations. Therefore, it is assumed that real-time analysis data can play a role in improved design of work environments in all trades. The need for accurate and unaltered behavior data of observation triggered the need for this research.

 

Hypothesis:

         

          Four hypotheses were broadly defined. They are,

1.        The behavior of the subjects of a sample is altered when human observers are put in a behavior setting.

2.        Accurate circulation data cannot be achieved through tracing on a plan by hand plotting of data.

3.        Time-sampling is supposed to be erroneous while tracing maps and time-keeping is done simultaneously.

4.        Data collection over longer hours (for days together) is potentially possible.

 

Methods of Data Collection:

 

There are over ninety ways behavior settings can be measured and analyzed. (Bechtel, 2000) The various scales developed all quantify different aspects of behavior within settings. Among them time-sampling, longitudinal observations, mapping, questionnaire survey, interview, and use of logs are basic tools of data collection for environment behavior analysis. The use of more than one method or triangulation (Webb, et al., 1965), represents an approach to validate findings by using multiple “imperfect measures”. (Rivlin, 2000) Observing behavior in physical settings generates data about people’s activities and the relationships needed to sustain them; about regularities of behavior; about expected uses, new uses, and misuses of a place; and about behavioral opportunities and constraints that environments provide. (Zeisel, 1981) Observation, for example, can be undertaken by a human observer present at the site physically or can be recorded as video data to analyze at a later time. A well documented questionnaire survey can also yield effective first hand data for analysis. Interviews, when well articulated, also give direct insights into many aspects that the other two methods may lack. A method singly often is insufficient to reach comprehensive behavioral analytic data. Data collection methodologies so far had been firsthand or primary sources by direct human interventions. These methods often produce databases with a certain measure of errors since is recreated or plotted manually into plans or data sheets. Minimizing the errors by precision methods of data collection can potentially be a source of more accurate results. At the same time, the presence of an observer tracking the movement behavior can distort the natural behavior of a subject/sample. This can be also minimized by non-invasive methods of data collection. The following paper is a proposal of a data collection method and tool as solution for movement behavior survey that can significantly reduce the margin of error by being a numerically supported method and a pseudo-noninvasive procedure.

 

Current Research:

 

What are to be tested?

         

Environmental Design Research seeks data that are co-relational to human behavior and the surrounding environment. Empirical Data can comprise of both qualitative and quantitative nature. Any single type would often not satisfy a holistic understanding of an analysis. The objective of the research delineates the extent and mode of data collection. For example, understanding how people feel about the new park in the neighborhood could be sufficed only by questionnaire survey of a selective sample. Where as, a research aimed to find out the efficacy of an office floor environment could potentially call for quantitative data that would measure the sound/noise quality, luminosity, zoning relations among different nodal points, traffic analysis, etc., abutted by the all evident questionnaire survey finding out the psychological stance of the occupants.

The most basic problem, as identified by Robert B. Bechtel (2000), of behavior studies is how to study human behavior in situ and without influencing it. If this is done carefully enough, the secrets of behavior will come to light. Data are not taken in samples but in toto. Inferences can be made from these data. Generalization to the population is not an extrapolation. The data are from the whole population.

The basic method of data collection is observation of behavior in a behavior setting. Conventionally, this calls for human observer(s). But, as Bechtel (2000) denotes about not influencing the behavior come to question. In other words this method is an invasive method of data collection through observation using live human observers when the sample(s) are aware that they are being observed. Therefore, the purity of data in terms of real behavior situation is distorted for unwanted intrusion in the domain of the subject when surveyed in a controlled environment. The tool that is proposed in this research is fundamentally a step toward a “less invasive method” of observation data collection in a controlled environment.

The types of data to be collected from the survey of a behavior setting, primarily assumed to be a nursing unit, are:

 

1.      The length of traveled distance (by individual/in total).

2.      Time spent on the move.

3.      Trip counts between different locations.

4.      Time-sampling.

5.      Accurate circulation mapping.

6.      Traffic index

7.      Comparative workload analysis.

8.      Precision mapping of activity area.

9.      Precision mapping of zonal preference.

10.  No direct impact on behavior (as not being followed physically).

11.  Less man-hour consuming survey.

12.  Minimal margin of error.

13.  Seemingly non-invasive procedure

14.  One step procedure for all data types.

 

Figure 03: Data Flow Diagram (DFD) for the Solution

 

The basic method of data collection is planned to be undertaken with the help of electronic tracking devices. A brief research about available tracking methods has narrowed our option to two possible options. Firstly, by using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) method, and second, Laser Scanning (already implemented in real life setting by the Center for Spatial Information Science (CSIS) at the University of Tokyo). But there are limitations for both the techniques in directly extracting data for mapping in real time. The primary goal of this research is to overcome the limitations by developing a solution for the tracking method by combining both architectural design and computer science knowledge.

A brief definition of RFID technology is attached in the Appendix at the end of the paper. Information on the Laser Technology is yet to be recovered. But whatever the technology is, the basic principle that will work in the back ground is the same. A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is presented in Figure 03. This is the backbone of the solution. There are calculations and development of algorithms still in process that can be used to integrate the data flow between different components.

Data Tags are assumed as Tags (possibly RF Tags) that will be tagged to samples body and/or garment to give feedbacks from different points on the movement in a controlled space. This point location data, which presumably will be into a pre-coordinated digital map in the Agent/Server/Program, will be sorted out by the help of another set of algorithm into different tables in the database. Another program, written with a high level language like Java, for the execution of the analysis, will call-in data from the database to generate reports according to pre-defined interface for the end user/researcher. The database can be again used to plot data on the co-ordinate system to generate a digital mapping of the total circulation pattern surveyed in real-time. The data collected will not only give the location, but is tagged with a real-time sampling of the sample. This will create a formidable difference in the accuracy of the data collected and reduce the man-hour spent in a conventional process of observation data collection. The absence of a human observer in sight will also reduce the margin of error usually produce due to the intrusion in the setting of extra pairs of eyes following them.

Need for this research

                      Conclusion

Future Research Prospects

 

 

 

Reference

 

1.        Bechtel, R.B. 2000. Assumptions, methods, and research problems of ecological psychological. Theoretical perspectives in environment-behavior research: Underlying assumptions, research problems, and methodologies. Edited by:Seymour Wapner, et al. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

2.        Bonaiuto, M., & Mirilia Bonnes. 2000. Social-psuchological approaches in environment-behavior studies: identity theories and the discursive approach. Theoretical perspectives in environment-behavior research: Underlying assumptions, research problems, and methodologies. Edited by:Seymour Wapner, et al. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

3.        Deasy, C.M. 1973. People patterns in the blue print. Human Behavior.

4.        Fischer, G. N., Cyril Tarquinio, & Jacqueline C. V. 2004. Effects of the self-schema on perception of space at work. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24 (2004) 131-140.

5.        Moore, Gary T., D. Paul Tuttle, and Sandra C. Howell. 1985. Environmental Design Research Directions: Process and Prospects. New York: Praeger Publishers.

6.        Patterson, D.J., Dieter Fox, & Henry Kautz. 2004 Contextual Computer Support for Human Activity. American Association of Artificial Intelligence. www.aaai.org

7.        Rapoport, Amos. 1997. Theory in Environment Behavior Studies: Transcending Times, Settings, and Groups. Handbook of Japan-United States Environment-Behavior Research: Toward a Transactional Approach. New York: Plenum Press.

8.        Rivlin, L.G. 2000. Reflections on the assumptions and foundations of work in environmental psychology. Theoretical perspectives in environment-behavior research: Underlying assumptions, research problems, and methodologies. Edited by:Seymour Wapner, et al. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

9.        Scultz, P.W., Chris Shriver, Jennifer J. T., & Azar M. K. 2004. Implicit connections with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24 (2004) 31-42

10.    Villecco, M. & Brill M. 1981. Environmental Design/Research: Concepts, Methods, and Values. Washington, D.C.: National Endowments for the Arts.

11.    Zeisel, John. 1981. Inquiry By Design: Tools For Environment-Behavior Research. California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

 

 

Appendix:

Getting Started in RFID - A Step approach

A moment's thought about radio broadcasts or mobile telephones and one can readily appreciate the benefits of wireless communication. Extend those benefits to communication of data, to and from portable low cost data carriers, and one is close to appreciating the nature and potential of radio frequency identification (RFID). RFID is an area of automatic identification that has quietly been gaining momentum in recent years and is now being seen as a radical means of enhancing data handling processes, complimentary in many ways to other data capture technologies such bar coding. A range of devices and associated systems are available to satisfy an even broader range of applications. Despite this diversity, the principles upon which they are based are quite straight forward, even though the technology and technicalities concerning the way in which they operate can be quite sophisticated. Just as one need not know the technicalities of a mobile phone or personal computer to use it, it is not necessary to know the technicalities to understand the principles, considerations and potential for using RFID. However, a little technical appreciation can provide advantage in determining system requirements and in talking to consultants and suppliers.

What is RFID?

The object of any RFID system is to carry data in suitable transponders, generally known as tags, and to retrieve data, by machine-readable means, at a suitable time and place to satisfy particular application needs. Data within a tag may provide identification for an item in manufacture, goods in transit, a location, the identity of a vehicle, an animal or individual. By including additional data the prospect is provided for supporting applications through item specific information or instructions immediately available on reading the tag. For example, the colour of paint for a car body entering a paint spray area on the production line, the set-up instructions for a flexible manufacturing cell or the manifest to accompany a shipment of goods.

A system requires, in addition to tags, a means of reading or interrogating the tags and some means of communicating the data to a host computer or information management system. A system will also include a facility for entering or programming data into the tags, if this is not undertaken at source by the manufacturer. Quite often an antenna is distinguished as if it were a separate part of an RFID system. While its importance justifies the attention it must be seen as a feature that is present in both readers and tags, essential for the communication between the two.

To understand and appreciate the capabilities of RFID systems it is necessary to consider their constituent parts. It is also necessary to consider the data flow requirements that influence the choice of systems and the practicalities of communicating across the air interface. By considering the system components and their function within the data flow chain it is possible to grasp most of the important issues that influence the effective application of RFID. However, it is useful to begin by briefly considering the manner in which wireless communication is achieved, as the techniques involved have an important bearing upon the design of the system components.

Wireless communication and the air interface

Communication of data between tags and a reader is by wireless communication. Two methods distinguish and categorise RFID systems, one based upon close proximity electromagnetic or inductive coupling and one based upon propagating electromagnetic waves. Coupling is via 'antenna' structures forming an integral feature in both tags and readers. While the term antenna is generally considered more appropriate for propagating systems it is also loosely applied to inductive systems.

Transmitting data is subject to the vagaries and influences of the media or channels through which the data has to pass, including the air interface. Noise, interference and distortion are the sources of data corruption that arise in practical communication channels that must be guarded against in seeking to achieve error free data recovery. Moreover, the nature of the data communication processes, being asynchronous or unsynchronised in nature, requires attention to the form in which the data is communicated. Structuring the bit stream to accommodate these needs is often referred to as channel encoding and although transparent to the user of an RFID system the coding scheme applied appears in system specifications. Various encoding schemes can be distinguished, each exhibiting different performance features.

To transfer data efficiently via the air interface or space that separates the two communicating components requires the data to be superimposed upon a rhythmically varying (sinusoidal) field or carrier wave. This process of superimposition is referred to as modulation, and various schemes are available for this purposes, each having particular attributes that favour their use. They are essentially based upon changing the value of one of the primary features of an alternating sinusoidal source, its amplitude, frequency or phase in accordance with the data carrying bit stream. On this basis one can distinguish amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK) and phase shift keying (PSK).

In addition to non-contact data transfer, wireless communication can also allow non-line-of-sight communication. However, with very high frequency systems more directionality is evident and can be tailored to needs through appropriate antenna design.

 

 

---

[1] Collected from Zeisel, John. 1981. Inquiry By Design: Tools For Environment-Behavior Research.

[2] Collected from Tetreault, et al. (2003)

[ back home ][ back to research top ]