CASTLES

(a)          Why were castles built?

n            When William the Conqueror won the Battle of Hastings, he took control over England. However, the number of troops he had brought to England was vastly outnumbered by the Saxons (English)

n            William feared that they might rebel against him and so he needed to establish his control as soon as possible. He decided to build castles all over the country to show his power and to make sure that there were Norman troops everywhere to deal with any trouble. The castles would also be built along the coast to prevent invasion, along the borders with Wales and Scotland in case of attack, and at key points across the country to control major towns, roads and rivers.

n            William needed to build the castles quickly and so built the first castles out of wood. Wood was plentiful as most of the country was still covered by forests, and it was cheap. William could also forced the defeated Saxons to build the castles.

(b)         Where were castles sited?

n            Castles needed to be in places that would ensure Norman control.

n            William built castles along the coast at places like Dover to protect the country against a possible invasion from the sea

n            They were also built along the border with Wales and Scotland, such as Ludlow and Newcastle. This was to stop invasions by the Welsh and Scots.

n            They were also built next to major towns like London and Windsor. This would control the population of these towns.

n            They were also built by major rivers and roads. Windsor would allow control of the River Thames. Anyone using the river would be under the control of the lord in the castle, and he could tax anyone using the river.

n            When building a castle, the castle builder would look for the best possible position. He would look for several key factors : was it near a water supply? Would it be near a food supply? Did it have good natural defences? Was it near good communication networks (like rivers and roads)? He would want a castle high up with good natural defences and one that could stand an attack. He would also look at the site to ensure that there was nothing that would be bad about building on a site, such as near marsh land or in an area where there was no adequate water supply.

(c)          What were Motte and Bailey Castles?

n            The first castles built had to be built simply and quickly. They were built of wood and were known as Motte and Bailey Castles . Look at the diagram below. It shows a Motte and Bailey Castle:

The Motte is the mound. This would be man made. Saxons workers would be forced to move earth to make the mound. A Keep (as shown in the diagram) would be placed on top of the mound (motte). This is where the lord would live and the stores kept. It would also be where people would take shelter if the castle was attacked.

The Bailey is the courtyard below. Here would live the soldiers and other people, as well as the animals.

The castle would be protected with a wooden fence called a palisade. This would be vulnerable to fire.

Once William had established control, the Normans began replacing these castles with strong ones made of stone.

(d)         How did the builders of castles try to defend them?

The castle builders needed to make sure that they were as well defended as possible. They included aspects that would make it difficult to attack a castle.

Below are some examples:

n            Arrow-loops or arrow-slits were narrow openings or crosses set inside walls and towers enabling defenders to launch arrows at potential attackers from outside.

n                        A moat was a deep defensive trench usually filled with water that surrounded the castle. A moat without water is referred to as a "dry moat".

n                        A portcullis was a heavy grilled door that dropped vertically down through slots or guides, and most often protected the main entrance of the castle. It could be made of many different materials, but almost all were made of oak, then plated with iron. On the bottom were spikes. The raising of the heavy portcullis was sometimes assisted with counter weights, pulleys, and rope. Often times a quick release device was used to quickly lower the portcullis. When the castle came under attack, a guard could take a sledge hammer and hit the release latch. The portcullis would quickly drop closed.

n                        A drawbridge was a wooden bridge leading to a gateway, capable of being raised or lowered to either accommodate or prevent entry into the castle, and often spanned a ditch or moat.

n                        Murder holes are openings in a floor through which the castle defenders could drop missles or liquids upon the attackers. Stones were the most often used missile. Boiling oil was not used, as it was a precious commodity to waste. More than likely, if any boiling liquid was used, it was water. Murder holes were most often located in the vaulting over the gate passage.

n                        Round towers assisted defence as it was believed that any form of missile thrown or catapulted at the castle would deflect off of a rounded surface. Also if the enemy tried to dig under a castle to undermine a weak corner, they would not find a corner on a round tower ! So this form of attack was useless against a castle with rounded towers.. Rounded towers could also contain a spiral staircase.

n                        Spiral stairs in castle towers were designed to ascend clockwise, to make the attackers expose more of their body in order to use their swords in their right hands.

(e)          How did attackers try to capture a castle?

Attackers would have a hard job to attack a castle. They would use various devices to try and capture the castle. Below are several examples.

n                        Siege armies used a battering ram to break down a gatehouse door or even smash a castle wall. To shield themselves from attack, they built a covered shed, in which they hung a thick tree trunk on chains suspended from a beam above. Carpenters tapered the trunk into a blunt point and capped it with iron. The slow forward movement as the battering ram was wheeled toward the castle wall earned it the nickname "tortoise." Soldiers swung the hanging trunk back and forth, and the forward end of the trunk moved in and out of the shed like a tortoise's head, battering its target.

Castle defenders tried to burn the shed down with flaming arrows, though attackers responded by covering the shed with animal pelts or earth to make it fireproof.

n      Siege Tower. Attackers sometimes built a siege tower to scale castle walls. Soldiers lay in wait inside the structure as others wheeled it to the castle. Once there, the soldiers lowered a drawbridge at the top of the tower onto the castle wall. Some towers were almost 100 feet high, and in the siege of Kenilworth Castle, fully 200 archers and 11 catapults were crowded into a single tower. Siege towers were difficult and time-consuming to build, however, and castle defenders could burn them down with fire arrows or firepots (launched pots filled with flaming liquids such as tar). Sometimes castle knights launched surprise raids on a tower to destroy it during construction. To protect their siege engine, attackers draped it with rawhides of mules or oxen.

n      Tunnel. Men called sappers sometimes dug tunnels to gain entrance to a castle and thereby launch a sneak attack, but more often, these miners dug tunnels beneath a castle wall to destabilize and topple it. They supported their tunnels with timbers, which they then burned to collapse the tunnel—and, hopefully, the wall above. To defend themselves, castle dwellers put out a bowl of water and watched for ripples that might indicate digging. Sometimes the castle's garrison built counter-tunnels; if the two tunnels met, fierce battles ensued underground.

n      Trebuchet During a siege, these missile launchers were one of the most fearsome weapons of medieval times. Early trebuchets were powered by muscle, but later versions relied on a huge counterweight that swung a long arm. When the counterweight was dropped, the device launched a missile from a sling at the end of the arm. Trebuchets could launch missiles hundreds of yards in large, lobbing arcs at or even over a castle wall. The best trebuchets fired stone missiles weighing up to 400 pounds—big enough to do serious damage to a castle wall. Attackers also used them to launch dung or dead animals into the castle with the intention of spreading disease. Sometimes they even shot out the severed heads of enemy soldiers or even messengers who delivered unsatisfactory peace terms. If a trebuchet was set up too close to a castle, archers would harass its builders with arrows shot from bows or bolts from crossbows. Castle defenders also would try to destroy rising trebuchets with catapults shot from the castle wall or with sneak attacks to burn it down.

n      Scaling ladders. Long ladders would be placed against the walls and men would try to climb into the castle.

n      Archers. They would shot arrows to stop defenders from protecting the castle, so that when men were climbing the walls, the defenders were unable to stop them as they would be hit by the arrows. Also sometimes fire arrows were sent to set fire to parts of the castle.

n      Starvation. The attackers would surround the castle and make sure that supplies could not reach the castle. They would often wait months until the enemy was forced to surrender through starvation.

THOMAS BECKET

(a)    Why did medieval Kings want to control the Church?

n      There were several reasons

n      The Church was extremely wealthy. It controlled large areas of land and had fabulous riches. People often left it land and money in their wills and it rented out land to tenants. Kings were always in need of money but the Church did not have to pay taxes. The King had to ask for money from the Church. If the King controlled it, he would have access to its wealth.

n      People in medieval times were very religious. They believed in Heaven and Hell and many believed that the Church controlled the Keys to Heaven and could help people go to Heaven. This led many to fear the Church and to obey it. If the King controlled the Church, he could use it to make sure people obeyed him.

n      The Church was under the control of the Pope and obeyed him rather than the king. Kings resented the fact that the Church did not obey them. If they controlled the Church they could ensure that they obeyed them and were no longer a place of opposition to the King.

n      The Church had its own laws and courts. Kings did not like the fact that members of the church were excluded from the laws of the kingdom.

(b)   Why was Becket appointed Archbishop of Canterbury?

n      Henry II became king of England in 1154. He was from France and so did not know people in England. He needed men to serve him in England. He needed a Chancellor to control the country for him. The Chancellor was like a Prime Minister. Henry did know the Archbishop, Theobold, and so asked him to recommend someone. Theobold recommended Becket. Becket was a clever man who knew Latin and had served the Archbishop well. Henry appointed him as Chancellor. Becket served Henry well and they became great friends. Becket helped Henry in his quarrel with the Church and was able to get the Church to give Henry money to fight his wars. Henry came to regard Becket as a great friend and as someone who would serve him well.

n      When Archbishop Theobold died, Henry decided to appoint Becket as the new Archbishop. This would allow him to control the Church, he believed, as he was sure Becket would do as he asked. Henry was convinced that he now had control over the Church.

n      Becket told Henry not to appoint him, saying that he could not serve two masters, but Henry ignored Becket and appointed him.

(c)    Why did the two men come to quarrel?

n      As soon as Becket became Archbishop he changed. He gave up his wealthy lifestyle and began to wear plain clothes. He also wore a hair shirt and spent most of his time in prayer. Becket was taking his job as Archbishop very seriously.

n      He soon annoyed Henry by giving up the job as Chancellor. Henry came to realise that Becket was not going to simply do as Henry wanted. He was not pleased.

n      The Church had its own courts, called the Church Courts. Henry hated these as they tended to be far more lenient than were Henry’s courts. The Church courts tried members of the church, such as priests. One priest, called Philip, was accused of murder but was found innocent by the Church Court. Henry was furious and demanded that Philip be tried again by his court. He was found guilty but Becket refused to allow this, saying Henry had no right to try him. Becket then personally tried Philip. He found him not guilty of murder, but guilty of offending the King and ordered him to be whipped naked. Henry was furious.

n      Henry summoned Becket to meet him at his hunting lodge at Clarendon. He ordered him to sign a document called the Constitution of Clarendon (or the Clarendon rules). Becket signed them as he feared for his safety. They effectively gave Henry control over the church.

n      As soon as Becket had left, he regretted what he had done and asked the Pope for advice. The Clarendon Rules said that nobody could appeal to the Pope, so Becket had broken the law. Henry summoned him to a trial before the nobles of England. Becket refused to accept their verdict of guilty and stormed out. He knew that Henry had a fierce temper and so fled to France for safety where he stayed for several years.

(d)   Why did Becket excommunicate the Archbishop of York?

n      After six years an agreement was reached that allowed Becket to return to England.

n      Becket returned to find out that Henry had had his eldest son, also called Henry, crowned joint King of England. The crowning of a king was the job of the Archbishop of Canterbury, but Henry had asked the Archbishop of York to do it whilst Becket was in exile in France.

n      Becket was furious and excommunicated the Archbishop of York and those who had helped him. This meant that they were no longer members of the Church.

n      When Henry heard of this he was furious.

(e)    Why did the knights go to Canterbury and kill Becket?

n      Henry heard the news about the Archbishop of York whilst he was dining with his knights. Henry had had a lot to drink. He is said to have cried out : “Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?” Whether he meant it or not we can never know.

n      Some knights overheard this and thought that they could gain the king’s favour by acting. So they went to Canterbury and stormed into the cathedral to see Becket.

(f)     Why was Becket killed?

n      Becket was told that the knights had come, but ordered that the doors be left open. He also refused to flee.

n      The knights demanded to see him and called him a traitor. He denied that he was a traitor. The knights killed him.

n      Historians are divided over Becket. Some think he was a hero who died defending the Church against Henry. They see him a martyr, someone who dies for their faith. Other historians believe that Becket simply wanted power and glory. He wanted to be remembered by future generations and so deliberately allowed himself to die to achieve fame.

(g)    How did Henry and people react?

n      People were horrified at the death of Becket and blamed Henry.

n      Henry tried to show that he had not intended this by visiting Canterbury. He walked into the city bare footed and walked to Becket’s tomb. Monks then whipped him to show he was sorry and wished to make amends.

n      Henry banished the knights but took no further action against them

n      Henry did not get control of the Church

n      People came to regard Becket as a saint and stories soon began that visiting his tomb led to miracles. His tomb became a centre of pilgrimage.

KING JOHN

(a)    Who was King John?

n      King John was the youngest son of Henry II. In 1189 Henry had died and been succeeded by his son Richard the Lion-Heart. In 1199 Richard died and John, his brother, became king.

n      However, the rules about who should become king were not clear in 1199. John had a nephew who was the son of another elder brother, Geoffrey. Today, the son of an elder brother would become king and so John’s nephew, Arthur, would have been king, not John. Arthur claimed the throne, but John was crowned. This, however, caused problems for John as many in France felt Arthur was the rightful king and so supported him. The King of France wanted to push the English out of France and so decided to support Arthur in the hope of weakening King John and making it easier to defeat him.

(b)   Why do some people regard John as a bad king?

n      Many things happened during John’s reign that led lots of people to regard him as a bad king.

n      When Arthur declared himself king, civil war broke out in John’s empire. However, John organised a brilliant military campaign that led to the capture of Arthur. John had him imprisoned and he was never seen again. Rumours soon spread that John, in a drunken rage, had castrated his nephew, then strangled him and thrown his body into the river. This shocked many people. John never explained what had happened to Arthur and so people believed it.

n      John also needed money to fight wars in France against the French King. He asked the nobles for money, but they were reluctant. He, therefore introduced new taxes, forced the barons to lend him money and took part of their wealth. This annoyed the barons as they felt the king had no right to seize their wealth.

n      When John asked his barons to go to Normandy to help him defend Normandy against the French king, most barons refused. John fought bravely in Normandy but lost. The barons called him Softsword (someone who is not a good fighter) and Lackland (as he lacked land). John blamed the barons for the loss and never trusted them again. In future he demanded that barons hand over their sons and wives as hostages. Most were treated well, but one case led to John being condemned. William De Braose. His wife and son were handed over, but he then fled and John had his wife and son starved to death in Windsor Castle. This angered the barons and made them more determined to resist John.

n      When John was in southern France he fell in love with Isabella of Angouleme. However, she was betrothed to one of John’s barons. John took Isabella and married her, even though she was only 12 at the time. This annoyed the baron who had been engaged to her and he then sided with the French king, which ensured John lost control of this area of France.

n      John quarrelled with the Pope over who should be Archbishop of Canterbury. John refused to accept the man selected by the pope. In return the Pope placed an interdict over England – he refused to allow any church services. This meant people could not get married, baptised or buried. People believed that if you died without being baptised you would go to Hell, so many people were horrified at what had happened. Many priests and monks lost their jobs and so blamed John.

(c)    Why do some people disagree?

n      John does have his supporters.

n      They point out that John was a brilliant commander. He defeated the Welsh, he captured Arthur and he organised a brilliant campaign against the French king. If his barons had not betrayed him, he may well have defeated the French king and kept his French lands.

n      Kings had always raised taxes and forced loans from the nobles. John was doing nothing new.

n      John travelled round his country, ensuring justice was given to his people. No king had ever travelled so extensively and ensured there was justice.

n      John was just unlucky and it is the fault of the monks that he is regarded as a bad king as they hated him and wrote hostile accounts.

(d)   Did the Magna Carta give rights to people?

n      In 1214 the barons finally rebelled against John and civil war broke out.

n      In 1215 John agreed to the Magna Carta (the Great Charter). This was designed to limit the power of the king and was said to guarantee people certain rights.

n      However, both sides broke their word and civil war broke out again. The barons asked the French King to send his son over to replace John. John died whilst the civil war was continuing.

n      Some people claim that Magna Carta was a great charter of freedoms and some of the clauses seem to suggest this.

Important points that the Magna Carta covered were:

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