Annul � King Henry and his wife Catherine of Aragon had only one surviving child, a daughter named Mary Tudor. Henry felt that England�s stability depended on his having a male son heir to succeed him. He decided to remarry, hoping that a new wife would bear him a son. Since the church did not permit divorce, he asked the pope to annul, or cancel, his marriage to Catherine.
Gravity � As a student at Cambridge University Isaac Newton, at age 24, had developed a brilliant theory to explain why the planets moved as they did. In the next 20 years, Newton perfected his theory. Using mathematics, he showed that a single force keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun. He called this force gravity.
Patron � financial supporter. Lorenzo was a generous patron of the arts.
Perspective � Roman art had been very realistic, and Renaissance painters developed new techniques for representing both humans and landscapes in a realistic way. Renaissance artists learned the rules of perspective. By making distant objects smaller than those close to the viewer, artists could paint scenes that appeared three-dimensional.
Theocracy � In 1541, Protestants in the city-state of Geneva in Switzerland asked Calvin to lead their community. In keeping with his teachings, Calvin set up a theocracy, or government run by church leaders.
John Calvin � Born in France and trained as a priest and lawyer. Calvin believed that salvation was gained through faith alone. He regarded the Bible as the only source of religious truth. He taught that God was all powerful and that humans were by nature sinful. God alone decided whether an individual achieved eternal life. He preached predestination, and set up a theocracy in Geneva. He believed in religious education for girls as well as boys. He felt that women should read the Bible in private, and he also allowed them to sing in church.
Henry VIII � For political reasons Henry wanted to end papal control over the English church. After 18 years of marriage he asked the pope for an annulment. The pope refused Henry�s request. Through parliament, he had a series of laws passed. They took the English Church from the pope�s control and placed it under his own. He appointed Thomas Cranmer archbishop. Henry got an annulment with Catherine, then married 5 more times but only had one son, Edward. He died in 1547 and his 10 year old son, Edward VI, inherited the throne.
Leonardo da Vinci � Florence was home to many outstanding painters and sculptures. One of the most brilliant was Leonardo, who was born in 1452. To produce his masterpieces, Leonardo made sketches of nature and of models in his studio. He even dissected corpses to learn how bones and muscles work. His interests extended to botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, and engineering.
Lorenzo de' Medici � Died in 1492, represented he Renaissance ideal. A clever politician, he held Florence together during difficult times. He was a generous patron of the arts. Under Lorenzo, poets and philosophers frequently visited the Medici palace. He was a poet, and some of his works are still featured in collections of Italian verse.
Niccolo Machiavelli - Served Florence as a diplomat and had observed kings and princes in foreign courts. He also had studied Roman history. In his writings he combined his personal experience with his knowledge of the past to offer a guide to rulers on how to gain and maintain power. It did not discuss leadership in terms of high ideals. Instead, took a look at real rulers in an age of ruthless power politics, He stressed that the end justifies the means.
Heliocentric � In 1543, Polish scholar Nicholas Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. In it, he proposed a heliocentric, or sun-centered, model of the universe. The sun, he said, stood at the center of the universe. The Earth, he went on, was just one of the several planets revolving around the sun.
Humanism - At the heart of the Italian Renaissance was an intellectual movement known as humanism. Based on the study of classical culture, humanism focused on worldly subjects rather than on the religious issues that had occupied medieval thinkers. Humanist scholars hoped to use the wisdom of the ancients to increase their understanding of their own times.
Indulgence � to finance projects such as hiring painters and sculptors to beautify churches, the church increased fees for religious services like marriages and baptisms. It also promoted the sale of indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon for sins committed during a person�s lifetime.
Predestination � Calvin preached predestination, the idea that God had long ago determined who would gain salvation.
Recant � almost overnight, copies of Luther�s 95 Theses were printed and distributed across Europe, where they stirred up furious debate. The Church tried to persuade Luther to recant, or give up his views. Luther refused. Instead, he developed even more radical new doctrines.
Copernicus -
Durer � Traveled to Italy in 1494 to study the techniques of the Italian masters. Returning home, he employed these methods in paintings, engravings, and prints that portray the religious upheaval of his age. He had a keen and inquiring mind. Because of his wide-ranging interests, which extended far beyond art, he is sometimes called the �German Leonardo.�
Luther � He argued that salvation could be achieved through faith alone. He thus rejected the Church doctrine that good deeds were necessary for salvation. He declared that the Bible was the sole source of religious truth. He denied other traditional authorities, such as church councils or the pope. He rejected the idea that priests and the Church hierarchy had special powers.
Newton � As a student at Cambridge University in England, Isaac Newton devoured the works of the leading scientist of his day. By age 24, he had developed a brilliant theory to explain why the planets moved as they did. In the next 20 years, he perfected his theory. Using mathematics, he showed that a single force keeps the planets in their orbits around the sun.
Petrarch � Francesco Petrarch, a Florentine who lived from 1304-1374, was an early Renaissance humanist. In monasteries and churches, he hunted down and assembled a library of Greek and Roman manuscripts. He also wrote literature of his own.
Renaissance focus - The Renaissance�s focus was political, social, economic, and cultural. But the most important were the changes that took place in the way people viewed themselves and their world.
Printing of reformation - By 1300, methods of papermaking had reached Europe. By the 1400s, German engravers had developed movable type. Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany, printed a complete edition of the bible using movable type. With the Gutenberg Bible, the European age of printing had begun.
Results of Reformation - The new printing press made books easier to make and cheaper to buy. With the new access to books, people became more educated.
Causes of Renaissance - The causes of the Renaissance were Roman Catholic church becomes more worldly Humanists urge to return to simple religion strong national monarchs emerge. The renaissance was the rebirth of Europe. This was spurred by a reawakened interest in classical learning, especially the culture of ancient Rome, creative Renaissance minds set out to transform their own age. They felt their era was a time of rebirth after the disorder and disunity of the medieval world.
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Hobbes - Hobbes was an English thinker that set forth ideas that were to become key to the enlightenment. Hobbes argued that people were naturally cruel, greedy, and selfish.
Locke - Locke believed that people were basically good, but were corrupted by society. They had natural rights or rights that belonged to all humans from birth. These included the rights to life, liberty, and property.
Joseph II - The most radical enlightened despot was the Hapsburg emperor Joseph II. Joseph traveled in disguise among his subjects to learn of their problems. His efforts to improve their lives won him the nickname the peasant emperor.
Constitional Government - This is a government that whose power is defined and limited by law. The British Constitution is made up of all acts of Parliament over the centuries
Enlightened despot - Absolute rulers who used their power to bring about political and social change. These monarchs accepted the Enlightenment ideas.
Natural laws - Laws that govern human nature. These laws were governed by the physical world.
Natural rights - Rights that belonged to all humans from birth. These rights included the right to life, liberty, and property
Physiocrat - Physiocrats were people who focused on economic reforms. They looked for natural laws to define a rational economic system.
Bach - Johann Sebastian Bach was a German Lutheran who wrote complex and beautiful religious works for organs and choirs. His beautiful masterpieces are still thought of as great today.
Diderot - Didertot was a philosopher who spent 25 years on a 28- volume Encyclopedia. His purpose was to change the general way of thinking.
Tom Paine - Paine was an immigrant from England wrote the Common Sense pamphlet in 1776. The pamphlet called on them to declare their independence from Britain.
Rousseau - Rousseau�s view was that people were basically good, but were corrupted by the evils of society. He wrote the social contract is 1762.
Robert Walpole - From 1721 to 1742, the able Whig leader Robert W. molded the cabinet into a unified body, requiring all members to agree on major issues. He was the prime minister of the majority party in Parliament.
Baroque - In the age of Louis XIV, courtly art and architecture were either in classical style, in the Greek and Roman tradition, or in the grand, complex style known as the Baroque. Baroque paintings were huge, colorful, and full of excitement
Free market - The free market was the natural forces of supply and demand. Adam Smith argued that the free market should be allowed to operate and regulate businesses
Laissez faire - Physiocrats urged a policy allowing businesses to operate with little or no government interference. The Physiocrats claimed that wealth came by producing good land.
Salon - A salon was a kind of book club, run by women, where women went to discuss important matters. Only the smartest and most intelligent women were allowed into the salons.
Social contract - An agreement by which they gave up the state of nature for an organized society. Hobbes decided that this was what people entered into to escape the British life