(1) Among all those authorities that are included in the sacred writings, the Gospel rightly stands out from the rest. For what the law and the prophets foretold for the future is shown in the Gospel as fulfilled and complete. The first preachers of this Gospel were the apostles, who saw our lord and savior himself, Jesus Christ, when he was still in the flesh. They not only remembered the words they had heard from his mouth and the deeds he had done before their eyes, but when the duty of preaching the Gospel was placed upon them they also took care to announce to the human race those things that had happened before they were his disciples. They were able to inquire and learn about these divine and important events of his birth, infancy, and childhood, either from Jesus himself, or from his parents, or from others, with totally reliable information and completely trustworthy evidence. Some of them - Matthew and John - also produced in their respective books written accounts of him, containing those things it was necessary to put into writing.

(2) But one might suppose that concerning the understanding and proclamation of the Gospel it might make a difference whether the ones announcing the Gospel were followers of the lord when he appeared here in the flesh accompanied by his disciples, or whether they were people who came to believe by accurately learning from Jesus' followers. So that no one might suppose such a thing, divine providence, by the holy spirit, has made sure that some of those who came after the first apostles were given the authority not only to preach the Gospel, but even to put it in writing.⁽¹⁾ Such are Mark and Luke. But all the others who have attempted or dared to put in writing the deeds of the lord or of the apostles have not merited the trust of the church in their own times and their writings have not received the canonical authority of the sacred books.⁽²⁾ This was so not only because their narratives were unfit to be believed, but also because they deceptively put into their writings things which the Catholic and apostolic rule of faith and sound doctrine both condemn.

(3) Therefore there are those four evangelists who are completely familiar to the entire world. (It may be that there are four of them because there are four parts to the world,⁽³⁾ so that by their number they show, as by some sort of sign, that the church of Christ has spread everywhere throughout the world.) They are believed to have written in this order: first Matthew, then Mark, thirdly Luke, and finally John. Hence, as regards their knowledge and preaching there was one order among them, but as regards their writing there was another order. For indeed, with regard to knowledge and preaching, those certainly were first who had followed the lord when he was here in the flesh: they heard what he said and saw what he did and they were sent out to preach the Gospel by a command from his mouth.⁽⁴⁾ But with regard to composing a written Gospel, one which must be believed to be divinely ordained, there were only two of those whom the lord chose before his Passion, and these occupy the first place and the last: Matthew the first, John the last. This was done so that the other two, who were not from that group, but who were nonetheless followers of the Christ who spoke in these others, would be held up in safety by both of them and set between them like sons who are embraced.

(4) It is true that of these only Matthew is said to have written in the Hebrew language; the others wrote in Greek. And however much it might appear that each of them kept his own particular order of narration, it is not the case that any one of them can be found to have chosen to write in ignorance of his predecessor, or to have omitted as unknown something which another is found to have written. But because each was inspired, they refrained from adding any redundancy to their works. For Matthew is understood to have produced an account of the incarnation of the lord according to the royal lineage and an account of most of his deeds and words as they relate to the present human life. Mark, following him, seems like his acolyte and summarizer. Mark shares no material with John that the others do not also share; he records little on his own that the others do not share; and he has even less in common with Luke unless the others share it also. But with Matthew he has very many agreements, and many of these use the same number of words, or the same identical words; these agreements are either with Matthew alone or also with the others. On the other hand, Luke appears more concerned with the priestly lineage and character of the lord. For although he does trace Jesus' genealogy back to David,⁽⁵⁾ he does not do so by following the royal line, but rather the line of those who were not kings: he traces the line through David's son Nathan,⁽⁶⁾ who was not a king. But this is not the case with Matthew, who traces Jesus' genealogy through Solomon the king,⁽⁷⁾ following the order of the kings; in this way, as we shall note later, he has preserved their mystical number.

(5) For the lord Jesus Christ, the one true king and the one true priest⁽⁸⁾ (the former to rule us, the latter to make expiation for us), has shown how his own figure maintained these two characters, which were recognized only singly by the Fathers. This is shown by that title which was put on his cross, "King of the Jews," about which Pilate responded with cryptic instinct, "What I have written, I have written."⁽⁹⁾ Indeed, it was foretold in the Psalms, "Do not destroy the writing of the title."⁽¹⁰⁾ Ande regarding his character as priest, it has been shown by his teaching us how to offer and receive. Thus he sent beforehand a prophecy about himself, saying, "You are a priest forever, according to the order of Melchisedek."⁽¹¹⁾ And there are many other places in divine scrpiture where Christ appears as both king and priest. Thus even David himself, whose son Chirst is said to be more often than he is said to be Abraham's son, and whom Matthew and Luke alike have in Jesus' genealogy (the one tracing the genealogy down from him through Solomon, the other tracing it back to him through Nathan), although he was clearly king, took on the character of priest when he ate the bread of the presence, which only the priests are allowed to eat.⁽¹²⁾ Moreover, it should be noted that only Luke recounts how Mary was found by the angel, and how she was a relative of Elisabeth,⁽¹³⁾ who was the wife of Zacharias the priest. Luke also writes that Zacharias' wife was one of the daughters of Aaron, that is, that she was of the priestly tribe.⁽¹⁴⁾

(6) Therefore, while Matthew focused on Christ's character as king, and while Luke focused on his character as priest, they both perfectly put forth Christ's humanity, for Chirst was made both king and priest according to his humanity. God gave to him the throne of his father David, so that there might be no end to his kingdom,⁽¹⁵⁾ and so that there might be a mediator between God and humanity, the man Christ Jesus,⁽¹⁶⁾ to intercede for us. But Luke had no one following him and acting as his summarizer, as Matthew had Mark. This is perhaps not without some significance, for kings are seldom without obedient followers. Therefore, the evangelist who had attempted to give an account of Christ's royal character had a follower associated with him, one who in some way followed in his steps. But since the priest would enter the holy of holies alone,⁽¹⁷⁾ it follows that Luke, who focused on Christ's priesthood, would not have a helper coming after him, one who in some way would summarize his narrative.

(7) However, these three evangelists were concerned primarily with those things which Christ did in an earthly manner by means of human flesh. But John was concerned primarily with the true divinity of the Lord, in which he is equal to the Father; this he attempted most of all to convey in his Gospel, as much as he believed would be sufficient for humanity. Therefore he is carried higher and farther than these three. In them you see those who in some way spoke with Christ the man on earth; but in John you see one who has passed beyond the cloud that covers the entire earth, and who has arrived at the shining heaven from which he has looked with the clearest and steadiest mental eye upon God the Word, who was in the beginning with God, and by whom all things were made.⁽¹⁸⁾ And he has recognized the one who was made flesh in order to dwell among us,⁽¹⁹⁾ one who took on flesh, not one who was changed into flesh. For if this assumption of flesh had been done without preserving the immutable divinity, it could not have been said that, "I and the father are one,"⁽²⁰⁾ for the Father and the flesh are not one. And John alone has recorded the testimony of the Lord concerning himself, "the one who has seen me has seen the Father also"; and, "I am in the Father and the Father is in me";⁽²¹⁾ and, "that they may be one even as we are one";⁽²²⁾ and, "whatever the Father does, these same things the Son does likewise."⁽²³⁾ Whatever other statements that reveal to the right-minded the divinity of Christ, in which he is equal to the Father, these things John alone has put into his Gospel. It is almost as if, while reclining on the Lord's breast at dinner (as he often did),⁽²⁴⁾ he drank in the secret of his divinity more fully and in some way more intimately than others.

(8) Furthermore, there are presented to the human mind two virtues, one active, one contemplative. Something moves by means of the former, something is arrived at by means of the latter. One labors by means of the former to cleanse the heart in order to see God;⁽²⁵⁾ one negates oneself⁽²⁶⁾ by means of the latter and God is seen. The former is concerned with the laws that govern this earthly life; the latter with the doctrine of that life which is eternal. In this way also, the former performs, while the latter rests; for the former is concerned with purifying us from sins, the latter with the light of the purified. In this way also, the former is seen in this mortal life in the work of a good conversation; ⁽²⁷⁾ but the latter is seen rather in faith, and only in a very few, through a glass darkly and only in part, like some kind of vision of the immutable truth.⁽²⁸⁾ These two virtues are understood to be symbolized by the two wives of Jacob.⁽²⁹⁾ I have treated these two as well as I am able and as much as seemed necessary in my work against Faustus the Manichee.⁽³⁰⁾ "Leah" clearly means "working," while "Rachel" means "the visible first principle."⁽³¹⁾ By this one can understand (if one considers it carefully), that the three evangelists who were familiar with that active virtue were the ones who most fully investigated the Lord's earthly deeds and those sayings of his that most directly pertain to the teaching of the ways of the present life. John, on the other hand, focused his attention and proclamation on the contemplative virtue; therefore he narrates far fewer of the Lord's deeds, but he records more carefully and fully his sayings, especially those that illustrate the unity of the Trinity and the happiness of eternal life.

(9) Therefore it seems to me that if one is to interpret the four living creatures of the Apocalypse as representing the four evangelists, then it is more likely that the lion represents Matthew, the man Mark, the calf Luke, and the eagle John, rather than to assign the man to Matthew, the eagle to Mark, and the lion to John.⁽³²⁾ This latter formulation focuses only on the beginnings of the books, and not on the overall plan of the evangelists, which is what should have been examined more thoroughly. For it is more appropriate that the one who most clearly presented Christ's royal character should be signified by the lion. Thus also in the Apocalypse the lion is mentioned in connection with the royal tribe itself, where it is said, "The lion of the tribe of Judah has conquered."⁽³³⁾ And according to Matthew the magi are said to have come from the east to seek and worship the king whose birth was announced to them by the star;⁽³⁴⁾ and king Herod himself fears the royal child, so that in order to kill that one, he puts many children to death.⁽³⁵⁾ Neither [formulation] has questioned that Luke is signified by the calf, because of the priest's greatest sacrifice.⁽³⁶⁾ For there the narration begins with Zacharias the priest,⁽³⁷⁾ and the relationship between Mary and Elizabeth is mentioned.⁽³⁸⁾ There it is narrated that the rites of the earliest priesthood were performed in relation to the infant Christ;⁽³⁹⁾ and a careful investigation reveals other such things, by which Luke shows his interest in the priestly character [of Christ]. Therefore Mark, who wishes to present neither [Christ's] royal lineage, nor [his] priestly nature (whether by descent or by consecration), but who appears to present the things which Christ the man did, seems to be signified by the figure of the man among those four living creatures. But these three creatures, whether lion or man or calf, walk upon the earth; likewise, these three evangelists are concerned primarily with the things Christ did in the flesh, and with [his] teachings, which he gave to those who [also] bear the flesh, concerning the conduct of this mortal life. John, on the other hand, soars above the clouds of human weakness like an eagle, and gazes upon the light of unchangeable truth with the keenest and steadiest eyes of the heart.⁽⁴⁰⁾

(10) But these holy chariots of the Lord, in which he is carried throughout the world, bringing his easy yoke and light burden to the nations,⁽⁴¹⁾ are attacked with false accusations by some people, motivated by either their impious vanity or ignorant recklessness; they do this in order to diminsh the trust put in this true account that has spread the Christian religion through all the world, so successfully that now unbelievers hardly dare to mutter their false accusations among themselves, restrained by the faith of the Gentiles and the devotion of all the nations. Nevertheless, by their slanderous arguments they keep some from believing in the faith, while among believers they try as much as possible to trouble them with disturbances; also, there are some brethren who, for the benefit of their own faith, want to know how to respond to such questions, either in order to advance their own knowledge or to refute the others' lies. In light of this, with the inspiration and help of the Lord our God (would that it might help in the salvation of such people!), we have undertaken in this work to show the errors and recklessness of those who have decided to make quite definite charges against the four books of the Gospel that have been written separately by the four evangelists. In order to do this, it must be shown that these four writers are not in opposition to one another. For among their empty complaints, those [who attack the Gospel] usually hold up as their chief accusation that the evangelists disagree with one another.

(11) But first we must discuss something that often disturbs some people: why the Lord himself has written nothing, so that we must believe others who have written about him. This is raised [as an objection], especially by pagans, when they do not dare to censure or blaspheme the Lord Jesus Christ himself, but grant that he had the highest (though still only human) wisdom. Thus they claim that the disciples attributed more to their master than he really was, saying that he is the Son of God and the Word of God, by whom all things were made, and that he and God the Father are one; [they say the same] of similar passages in the epistles of the Apostles, where we are told to worship him and the Father as one God.⁽⁴²⁾ For they believe that he should be honored as a most wise man, but they deny that he should be worshiped as God.

(12) Therefore, when they ask why he himself has written nothing, they would seem to be prepared to believe whatever he himself might have written about himself, but not what others on their own authority may have proclaimed about him. To this I respond that regarding some of their noblest philosophers, they have believed what their disciples have recorded of them, when [the philosophers] themselves have written nothing about themselves.⁽⁴³⁾ For Pythagoras, the most shining example that Greece then had of that contemplative virtue, is said to have written nothing, neither about himself nor about anything else. And [much the same goes] for Socrates, whom they esteem higher than all in the active [virtue] that forms morals.⁽⁴⁴⁾ (They even claim he was declared to be the wisest of all by the testimony of their god Apollo.) Only when he treated Aesop's fables in a few meager verses did he use his own words and numbers, applying them to another's subject. But really he wanted to write nothing: he says he did this only when compelled by the power of his own deity, as his noblest disciple Plato reports. And in that work he wanted to report another's thoughts rather than his own. What reason then do they have to believe what those [philosophers'] disciples have recorded about them, while they refuse to believe what Christ's disciples have written about him? This is especially relevant since they admit that his wisdom was superior to that of other people, although they reufse to admit that he was God. Can it really be that those who they believe were greatly inferior to him have been able to make completely truthful disciples, while he was unable to do so? But if it is most absurd to say this, then they should believe of [Christ], whose wisdom they admit, not what they themselves wish [to believe], but what they read that was written by those who learned from that wise man.

(13) Therefore they should say how they have come to know or to hear that he was the wisest person. If this has been spread by popular reports, then is it the case that popular reports form a more dependable account than that of his disciples, by whose proclamation of him the same report has permeated the whole world like a sweet aroma? In short, they should prefer one report over the other, and believe the better report. For certainly this report, which is broadcast with remarkable clarity by the Catholic church (whose expansion through the whole world amazes [some]), unquestionably triumphs over their empty rumors. Furthermore, this report is so great and so renowned that out of fear of it they fret over their nervous and paltry little objections in their own hearts;⁽⁴⁵⁾ they fear to be heard more than they want to be believed. [This report] proclaims Christ as the only begotten Son of God, and as God, by whom all things were made.⁽⁴⁶⁾ If then they choose a report as witness, why not choose this one, which shines with such clarity? If [they want] written evidence, why not the Gospels, whose authority surpasses all others? Indeed, we believe what is said of their gods in their older writings and in the more renowned reports. But if these are to be worshiped, why do they mock them in the theaters?⁽⁴⁷⁾ But if these are to be mocked, what could be greater mockery than to worship them in the temples? It is the case that those who wish to be witnesses to Christ, but who speak about what they do not know, thereby rob themselves of the right to know of what they speak. Or if they say that they have any books which they claim to have been written by him, let them show them to us. Indeed, if the man who they admit was the wisest wrote those [books], then they would be most advantageous and beneficial. But if they are afraid to produce them, then those [books] must be evil; but if they are evil, then the wisest man cannot have written them. But they admit that Christ was the wisest man; therefore Christ cannot have written any such thing.

(14) Indeed, they are so foolish that they claim that those books which they consider to have been written by him contain the methods by which they think he performed those miracles which have become well-known everywhere. By such thinking they show what they love and what they are trying to do, for they think Christ was the wisest man only because he knew some unheard-of forbidden arts, which are justly condemned, not only by Christian teaching, but even by the administration of earthly government itself. Furthermore, if they claim to have read such books of Christ's, why do they themselves not do the sorts of things that so amaze them when done by him in those books?

15) Indeed, some are so much in error that it seems like a divine judgment; for some who believe or wish others to believe that Christ wrote such things claim that these books bore an address to Peter or Paul, like the heading of a letter. It is possible that either the enemies of the name of Christ or some who thought to give the weight of authority of so glorious a name to such damnable arts may have written such things under the name of Christ and the apostles. But by such deceitful audacity they have been so blinded that they only deserve to be mocked, even by children who are in the grade of readers and know Christian literature only in an immature way.

16) For when it occurred to them to represent Christ as writing to his disciples in such a way, they deliberated over who would seem the most believable as the addressees of such writing; these would seem to be those who were his intimate followers and to whom he was especially attached. And so Peter and Paul occurred to them, I believe, because in many places they saw pictures of both of them with him. For Rome, with especially solemn renown, commends the merits of Peter and Paul, because their martyrdoms were on the same day.⁽⁴⁸⁾ Therefore they deserved to fall completely into error, for they sought Christ and his apostles not in the holy books, but on painted walls. Nor is it surprising that these pretenders were deceived by the painters, for during the whole time that Christ lived in mortal flesh with his disciples, Paul was not yet his disciple. Only after his passion, after his resurrection, after his ascension, after the sending of the Holy Spirit from heaven,⁽⁴⁹⁾ after the conversion and astonishing faith of many Jews, after the stoning of Stephen the deacon and martyr,⁽⁵⁰⁾ (when Paul was still called Saul and was violently persecuting those who believed in Christ,)⁽⁵¹⁾ [only then did Christ] call from heaven and make him his disciple and apostle.⁽⁵²⁾ How then could Christ, before he died, have written those books that they claim he wrote to his most intimate disciples Peter and Paul, when Paul was not yet his disciple?

17) [There are some] who madly rave that it was by magical arts that he was able [to do] the things [he did], and that by the same arts he made his name sacred to the peoples converted to him. They must answer this: How could he, by magical arts before he was born on earth, have filled with the divine Spirit those prophets who foretold as future events those things about him that we now read in the Gospel as accomplished facts, and the effect of which we now see in the world?⁽⁵³⁾ For even if by magical arts he made himself be worshiped (although he was dead!), was he also a magician before he was born? One nation had been given the mission to prophesy of his coming; the entire conduct of that state was a prophecy of this king who was to come and who was to establish a heavenly city out of all the nations.⁽⁵⁴⁾

18) Moreover, this Hebrew nation (which, as I have said, was commissioned to prophesy of Christ) had no other God but one God, the true God, who made heaven and earth and everything that is in them. Often he handed them over to their enemies because of his displeasure; indeed, now it is for their worst crime of murdering Christ that they have been completely banished from Jerusalem itself, which was the capital of their kingdom, and have been conquered by the Roman empire. Now the Romans usually appeased the gods of conquered nations by worshiping them, and they usually maintained their sacred rites; but they were unwilling to do this with the God of the Hebrew nation, either when they attacked or defeated it. I believe they saw that if they accepted the sacred rites of a God who commanded that he alone be worshiped and that idols be destroyed, everything they had formerly worshiped would have to be abandoned; but they believed that the veneration of these had made their empire prosper. In this the fraudulence of their demons greatly deceived them. For certainly they should have understood that it was by the hidden will of the true God, who has power over all things,⁽⁵⁵⁾ that their kingdom was established and grew; it was not by the favor of those gods who, if they had had any power at all in the matter, would have rather protected their own peoples from being overrun by the Romans, or would have handed the vanquished Romans themselves over to them.

19) They cannot say that their own piety and customs became beloved and preferred by the gods of the nations they conquered. They will never say this, as long as they recall their own early history, [that of] a refuge for criminals and the fratricide of Romulus.⁽⁵⁶⁾ For Remus and Romulus established a refuge to which any criminal who had committed any crime could flee unpunished; they gave no rules for penitence to rehabilitate the souls of such wretches. Rather, by rewarding impunity they armed the gathered cowardly gang against their cities, whose laws they feared. And when Romulus killed his brother, who had done him no wrong, he did not intend to defend justice, but rather to assert brute force. Did the gods then love such actions, making themselves enemies of their own cities by favoring their enemies? No, they did not harm those who were being attacked, nor did they in any way help those [who were attacking], because they do not have the power to give or remove kingship: only the one true God does that by his hidden judgment. Those to whom he gives an earthly kingdom are not necessarily blessed, nor are those from whom he takes [one] necessarily wretched. Rather, he makes people blessed or wretched for other reasons and in other ways, distributing temporal and earthly kingdoms either by permission or gift to whomever he wishes and for however long he wishes, according to the predestined order of the ages.

20) Nor can they ask this: Why did the God of the Hebrews, whom you call the supreme and true God, not only not let [the Hebrews] vanquish the Romans, but even let the Hebrews themselves be vanquished by the Romans? For they had committed obvious sins, for which the prophets long before had predicted this would happen to them. Above all, in an evil rage they murdered Christ, and by this sin they were made blind to the guilt of [their] other hidden sins. That his Passion would benefit the nations was predicted by the same prophetic witness. Nothing shows this more clearly than the following: that nation's kingdom, temple, priesthood, cult, and mystical anointing (which is called "chrisma" in Greek, from which the name of "Christ" is derived, and because of which that nation called its kings "christs," or "anointed ones"), were established for no other reason than to foretell Christ; all these things ceased after the resurrection of the Christ who was killed began to be preached to the believing Gentiles. These things ceased because of the Romans' victory and the Jews' defeat, though both were unaware of it.

21) The few pagans who have remained [pagan] do not note this truly remarkable fact: the God of the Hebrews was an offense to the conquered and was also rejected by the conquerors,⁽⁵⁷⁾ but is now preached and worshiped among all the nations. For this is that God of Israel, of whom the prophet spoke long ago to the people of God: "And he who brought you out, the God of Israel, will be called [the God] of the whole earth."⁽⁵⁸⁾ This has been accomplished by the name of Christ, who comes to humanity from the line of that very Israel who was a grandson of Abraham, from whom the nation of the Hebrews began.⁽⁵⁹⁾ For it was also to this Israel that it was said, "Through your descendants will all the tribes of the earth be blessed."⁽⁶⁰⁾ This shows that the God of Israel, the one God, who made heaven and earth, and who manages human affairs justly and mercifully in such a way that neither does justice exclude mercy, nor does mercy hinder justice, was not himself conquered along with his Hebrew people by letting their kingdom and priesthood be destroyed and overthrown by the Romans. For in fact, through the Gospel of Christ, the true king and priest, whose coming was prefigured by that kingdom and priesthood, the God of Israel himself is now everywhere overthrowing the idols of the nations. Indeed, it was to stop their destruction that the Romans refused to accept this [God's] rites as they accepted [the rites] of the gods of the other nations they conquered. Thus did he remove both kingdom and priesthood from the prophetic nation, because he who had been promised by that [nation] had come. And he has made the Roman empire, which conquered that nation, subject to his name by Christ the king; and he has converted it by the strength and devotion of the Christian faith, overthrowing those idols whose worship had kept his rites from being accepted.

22) I do not think that it was by magical arts that Christ, before he was born among people, caused the events of his life to be foretold by so many prophets and also by the kingdom and priesthood of a certain nation. Indeed, the people of that now destroyed kingdom are scattered everywhere by the wonderful providence of God.⁽⁶¹⁾ They have remained without any royal or priestly "anointing," in which "anointing" (that is, "chrism"), the name of Christ is clearly seen. Nonetheless, they do retain traces of some of their observances; even though they are conquered and vanquished, they do not accept those Roman rites of idol worship. They keep the prophetic books as witness to Christ, and thus the truth of Christ, of whom the prophets spoke, is shown by the records of his enemies. What then do these wretches reveal about themselves when, with evil intent, they praise Christ? If anything about magic has been written under his name, while the doctrine of Christ is vehemently opposed to such practices, they ought rather to take this as indicating how great that name is, because even those who live in opposition to his precepts try to legitimate their abominable practices by using his name. For among [all] the diverse human errors, many people have used his name when establishing [their] various heresies against the truth. In the same way, even Christ's enemies, although they recommend teachings that are against Christ's doctrine, still think they have no weight of authority unless they use Christ's name.

(23) But those empty praisers of Christ and devious slanderers of the Christian religion do not dare to blaspheme Christ, because some of their philosophers (as Porphyry of Sicily relates in his books),⁽⁶²⁾ consulted their gods as to how they responded to Christ, and they were forced by their oracles to praise Christ. Nor is this remarkable, for we also read in the Gospel that the demons confessed him;⁽⁶³⁾ it is also written in our prophets, "For the gods of the nations are demons."⁽⁶⁴⁾ Therefore, they do not attempt [to go] against the responses of their gods, and so they turn [their] blasphemies from Christ and heap them upon his disciples. But it seems to me that if these gods of the nations, whom the pagan philosophers may have consulted, were also asked about the disciples of Christ, they would be compelled to praise them too in the same way.

(24) Nonetheless, these people still argue that this destruction of temples and condemnation of sacrifices and smashing of images are not brought about by the doctrine of Christ, but by that of his disciples, who they contend taught something different from what he taught. In this way they intend to tear apart the Christian faith while honoring and praising Christ. But at the very least, Christ's disciples proclaimed Christ's deeds and words, on which this Christian religion is established; there is still a very small number opposed to this [religion], not with open attacks, but with muted grumblings still. But if they refuse to believe that Christ taught in this way, they should read the prophets, who not only commanded the destruction of the superstitions of idols,⁽⁶⁵⁾ but even predicted that this destruction would also occur in Christian times. But if [the prophecies] were mistaken, why are they so clearly fulfilled? But if they spoke the truth, why resist such divine prophetic power?

(25) But this question requires more attention from them: What do they think the God of Israel is? Why do they not accept his worship like the gods of the other nations vanquished by the Roman empire, especially since it is their opinion that all gods should be worshiped by the wise? Why then is this one excluded from the number of others? If he is the mightiest, why is he alone not worshiped by them? If he has little or no power, why are the images of [the other gods] smashed by all the nations, so that he is now almost the only one worshiped by them? They shall never be able to cast this question aside, as long as they worship greater and lesser gods (who they suppose are gods), while not worshipping this God, who has overpowered all those whom they worship. If he has great power, why is he held in contempt? If he has little or no power, why has he been able [to do] so much, though he is [held] in contempt? If he is good, why is he alone separated from the other good [gods]? If he is evil, why is this solitary one not overcome by so many good [gods]? If he is truthful, why are his commands rejected? If he is false, why are his predictions fulfilled?

(26) In the end, they may think of him however they wish. But do not the Romans recognize even the worship of evil gods?⁽⁶⁶⁾ Have they not built shrines to Pallor and Fever? Do they not advise that good demons should be treated well,⁽⁶⁷⁾ and bad demons should be placated? But however they regard him, why have they considered him the only god who is neither called upon nor appeased? What is this God, who is either so unknown that he is the only one not yet found among so many gods, or he is so well known that he is now the only one worshiped by so many people? Therefore there is nothing for them to say as to why they have refused to accept the rites of this God, except that he wishes to be the only one worshiped; he forbade the worship of those gods of the nations that they worshiped then. But this rather requires [an answer] from them: what, or of what kind, do they consider this God to be, who denies the worship of the other gods to whom they built temples and images? He is of such power that his will has succeeded more in destroying their images than theirs [has succeeded] in keeping his rites from acceptance. Indeed, the opinion of that philosopher of theirs is clear (and, based on their own oracle, they hold him to be the wisest of all people). For the opinion of Socrates is that every god should be worshiped in the way that he commanded himself to be worshiped. Therefore it is a matter of the greatest necessity for them not to worship the God of the Hebrews, for if they want to worship him in a way other than how he has said he is to be worshiped, then they would not really be worshipping him as he is, but how they themselves have invented him to be. But if they want [to worship him] in the way that he has said he [is to be worshiped], then they see that they cannot worship the other gods whose worship he forbade. For this reason they have rejected the religion of the one trueGod, so as not to offend the many false ones, thinking that the anger of those would be more harmful to them than the favor of this one would be beneficial.

(27) But that must have been a useless necessity and a ridiculous cowardice. We ask now what they think of this God, these people who find pleasure in the worship of all gods? For if this one is not worshiped, how are all worshiped, when this one is not worshiped? But if he is worshiped, then not all can be worshiped, because unless he alone is worshiped, he is not really worshiped. But perhaps they will say that he is not a god, while saying they are gods who, as we believe, have no power, except what he grants them by his judgment. Not only can they not benefit anyone, but they cannot even harm any, except those whom the one who has all power judges to deserve harm. But as they themselves are forced to admit, those [gods] are clearly able to do less than he. But are these gods, whose prophets (though I do not say they are false), nonetheless have given answers that are well-suited to [thier own] private interests? How then is he not God, whose prophets have given answers that were not only correct concerning the things about which they were consulted at the time, but are even so concerning things about which they were not consulted, things concerning the whole human race and all the nations, prophesied so long beforehand, which we now read and witness?⁽⁶⁸⁾ If they call a god the one who inspired the Sibyl to sing of the fates of the Romans,⁽⁶⁹⁾ how is he not God, who, as foretold, has caused the Romans and all the nations to believe through the Gospel of Christ in him, the one God, and to destroy all the images of their fathers? Finally, if they call those gods, who have never dared through their prophets to say anything against this God, how is he not God, who through his prophets not only commanded the destruction of their images, but even predicted that among all the nations they would be destroyed by those who, having abandoned them, were commanded to worship him, the one God, and were by his command his servants?

(28) Or let them claim, if they are able, that some on of the Sibyls, or any one of their other prophets, predicted that in the future the God of the Hebrews, the God of Israel, would be worshiped by all the nations; and that the worshipers of other gods would have been right in rejecting him previously; and that the future writings of his prophets would be of so high an authority that even the Roman empire, in order to obey them, would order the destruction of images, although warned not to obey such commands. Let them claim such things, if they are able, from any of the books of their prophets. For I do not hesitate to say that those things read in their books give testimony to our Christian religion; they might have learned the same thing from the holy angels and from our prophets themselves, just as even the demons were forced to confess Christ when he was present in the flesh.⁽⁷⁰⁾But I leave aside those things we profess which they claim we made up, although they themselves may be pressed to show any prophecy by the prophets of their gods against the God of the Hebrews, just as we [can show] many and formidable ones from the books of our prophets against their gods. In ours we see the command, we read the prediction, and we show the accomplished fact. The few remaining pagans like to lament the fulfillment of these things, rather than acknowledge that God who is able to foretell their fulfillment. But from their false gods (who are truly demons), they most eagerly desire to be told by their responses something that will happen to them.

(29) Since these things are so, why do these wretches not understand that this God is the true God? Although they are forced to admit that he is God, they must think he is separate from the company of their gods. How else could they not allow his worship with the others, when they claim all gods should be worshiped? Since they cannot be worshiped together with him, why not choose the one who forbids the worship of the others, and abandon those who do not forbid the worship of him? If they do forbid it, let us read where. For what could be more important, than to read this to their people in their temples, where no such thing has ever been proclaimed? And indeed, the prohibition of one by so many should be more notable and persuasive than [the prohibition] of so many by one.⁽⁷¹⁾ For if the worship of this God is impious, then those gods are useless, since they do not keep people from such impiety. But if in fact the worship of this one is pious and precludes the worship of others, then their worship is impious. But if they forbid his worship so timidly that they dare to prohibit less than they fear to be heard,⁽⁷²⁾ who is so unwise as not to realize that this God should be chosen? This God publicly forbid the worship of others. HE predicted, commanded, and himself brought about the destruction of their images. We do not know whether those others forbid his worship, we do not read that they predicted such a prohibition, and we do not see that they have the power to bring it about: why should anyone choose them? I ask, let them answer: who is this God, who torments all the gods of the nations, who overturns all their sacred rites, who thus destroys them?

(30) Who is this God? Why do I ask this question of people whose thought is empty? Some say that he is Saturn.⁽⁷³⁾ I think this is because of the sanctification of the sabbath, for they assign that day to Saturday.⁽⁷⁴⁾ Varro himself, whom they deem the most learned among them, thought that the God of the Jews was Jupiter.⁽⁷⁵⁾ He thought it did not matter by what name he was called, as long as the same thing was understood: I believe he was led to this by God's supremacy. For the Romans hold Jupiter as the highest object of worship (their capitol is a clear enough indication of this), and they consider him the king of all the gods. When he noticed that the Jews worship the supreme God, he could only comprehend it as Jupiter. But whether they think the God of the Hebrews is Saturn or Jupiter, let them tell us when Saturn dared to forbid the worship of another god? He did not do this even with Jupiter, the son who is said to have driven his father from his kingdom. And if the more powerful and victorious [Jupiter] is accepted by his worshipers, then they should not worship Saturn, the conquered and expelled. But Jupiter did not forbid his worship, either. Although he had been able to conquer him, he noetheless let him remain a god.

(31) But they say our writings are fables that only the wise can interpret, or else laugh at. But they worship Jupiter, of whom Maro says, "Everything is full of Jupiter,"⁽⁷⁶⁾ that is, the life-giving spirit of all things. Varro therefore had reason to think that Jupiter was worshiped by the Jews. For God says by the prophet, "I fill heaven and earth."⁽⁷⁷⁾ But what does the same poet mean when he says "ether"? How do they understand it? For he says, "Then omnipotent father Ether, with fruitful rain, came down into the bosom of his joyful bride."⁽⁷⁸⁾ Indeed, they say that the ether is not a spirit, but a rarefied body in which heaven is stretched above the atmosphere. Do we just give license to the poet, [to sound] sometimes like a Platonist (according to whom God is not a body, but spirit), and sometimes like a Stoic (according to whom God is a body). What then do they worship in the Capitol? If it is a spirit, or if it is the corporeal heaven itself, then what is the purpose of Jupiter's shield, which they call the Aegis? Indeed, this name is explained by the story of a goat feeding Jupiter when he was hidden by his mother.⁽⁷⁹⁾ Or is this a lie of the poet? Or are the Roman capitols the works of the poets? But what is this variability? It is not poetical, though it is clearly comical, that when you seek your gods in books you agree with the philosophers, but when you revere them in temples you agree with the poets.

(32) But was that Euhemerus also a poet, who most clearly portrayed as men Jupiter himself, his father Saturn, and his brothers Pluto and Neptune?⁽⁸⁰⁾ Indeed, their worshipers should rather thank the poets, because they fashioned them so as to exalt them, bot to dishonor them. Cicero relates that this Euhemerus was translated into Latin by Ennius the poet. Or was Cicero himself a poet? In the Tusculan Disputations he gives the following advice to his discussion partner, with whom he shares secret knowledge: "If one were to search into antiquity and probe what the Greek writers produced, one would find that even the higher sorts of gods went from us up into heaven. Ask whose tombs are found in Greece; remember, since you have been initiated, what is handed on in the mysteries. Then indeed you will understand how widespread this [belief] is."⁽⁸¹⁾ He certainly admits often enough that their gods were human, although he kindly thinks that they went into heaven. But he does not hesitate to say publicly that the honor [they have] in general opinion is given to them by people. For he says of Romulus, "Because of kindness and fame, we elevate to the immortal gods Romulus, who founded [this] city."⁽⁸²⁾ Therefore, it is no surprise that ancient people did the same with Jupiter and Saturn and others, that the Romans [have done] with Romulus; indeed, more recently they have wished to do the same with Caesar. Virgil added the flattery of poetry to these, saying, "Behold, the star of Caesar came from Dione."⁽⁸³⁾ Therefore, let them beware, for the historical truth reveals the tombs of false gods on earth, and the poetic vanity fabricates rather than authenticates their stars in heaven.⁽⁸⁴⁾ For that is not really the star of Jupiter, nor is that one [the star] of Saturn. Rather, people wished to honor some people after their deaths by imposing their names on the stars, which were fixed from the beginning of the world. And among these, why should chastity be slighted and pleasure rewarded? For among the heavenly bodies that revolve with the sun and the moon, Venus has a star and Minerva does not.

(33) But it may be that Cicero the academician is less trustworthy than the poets. He is daring enough to recall the tombs of the gods and to put it in writing, although he does not offer it as his own opinion, but recalls it from the traditions of their own shared rites. Or does even Varro fabricate things like a poet, or put things dubiously, like an academician? For he says that the worship of such gods is based either on the life or death they experienced among people. Or was Leon the Egyptian priest a poet or academician?⁽⁸⁵⁾ For he explained the origin of their gods to Alexander of Macedon differently than the Greeks' opinion, though still showing that those gods had been human.

(34) But what is this to us? They say that they worship Jupiter and not some dead man. [They say] they dedicate their capitol not to some dead man, but to the spirit that enlivens everything and fills the entire world. And they may give any interpretation they wish to his shield, which was made of goat skin in honor of his nurse. But what do they say about Saturn?⁽⁸⁶⁾ What do they worship in Saturn? Is he not the first one who came from Olympus, "fleeing from Jupiter's arms and exiled from his kingdom, he brought together the ignorant people scattered on the mountain tops and gave them laws, and wished that the place where he lay be called Latium."⁽⁸⁷⁾ Does not his image, which includes a covered head, show him as concealed?⁽⁸⁸⁾ Did he not introduce agriculture to the Italians, as shown by his sickle? They answer no: for you may see whether there was a man or king of whom such things were said, but we interpret Saturn as "universal time," as shown by his Greek name. For he is called Kronos, which with the added aspiration is the word for "time."⁽⁸⁹⁾ Also in Latin he is called Saturn, as though he is "saturated" with years.⁽⁹⁰⁾ I do not know what is to be done with these people. While trying to give a better interpretation of the names and images of their gods, they admit that their greatest god, who is the father of the others, is "Time." But what else do they show by this, than that all their gods are temporal, since the father of them all is composed of time?

(35) Therefore their more recent Platonic philosophers during Christian times have been embarrassed by this. They try to interpret Saturn in another way, saying that the name Kronos indicates fullness of understanding. For fullness is called xoros in Greek, and understanding or mind is nous. In a way the Latin name favors this [interpretation], if the first part is from Latin and the latter part from Greek: he is called Saturnus, as though he were "Satur-nous," "full-mind." For they saw how absurd it was if Jupiter were a son of time, while they considered him, or wished others to consider him, as the eternal god. But if their ancient authorities had this [interpretation], it is remarkable that Cicero and Varro failed to mention it.⁽⁹¹⁾ However, according to this novel interpretation they say that Jupiter is the son of Saturn, as though his is the spirit emanating from that supreme mind; they want this [spirit] to be understood as the soul of this world, which fills all heavenly and earthly bodies. Why does Maro say, "All things are full of Jupiter,"⁽⁹²⁾ as I mentioned a little earler? If they are able, should they not change human superstition as well as interpretation, and [get rid of] all images, or at least build capitols to Saturn rather than Jupiter? For they claim that no rational soul is wise except by participation in his supreme and unchangeable wisdom.⁽⁹³⁾ [They say] this not only of a human soul, but even of that world [soul], which they call Jupiter. Now we not only concede, but we specifically proclaim that any soul that is truly wise is so by participation in the supreme wisdom of God.⁽⁹⁴⁾ But it is a large and obscure question, whether that universal bodily mass, which is called the world, has a kind of soul, or its own soul.⁽⁹⁵⁾ Does it have a rational life, which regulates it like any other animal? This opinion should not be accepted, unless it is proved true; nor should it be rejected, unless it is proved false. But what difference does it make for people if this remains unresolved forever, since no soul becomes wise or blessed by another soul, but only by the supreme and unchangeable wisdom of God.

(36) But the Romans, who have built a capitol for Jupiter and not Saturn, or those other nations who believe that Jupiter should have special worship above the other gods, do not feel this way. For some have the opinion that their greatest monuments should be dedicated to Saturn, if they had the power [to do] such things; they would especially eliminate these astrologers and horoscope-makers who make Saturn into an evil god among the other stars,⁽⁹⁶⁾ while they say he is the creator of the wise. But this opinion is so widespread in people's minds, that they refrain from naming him, calling him "the old one," rather than Saturn. This superstition is so fearful that the Carthaginians have nearly changed the name [of their city], calling it "the town of the old one" more often than "the town of Saturn."

(37) Therefore, it is clearly shown what these idolaters worship, and what they try to hide. But even these new interpreters of Saturn must explain what they think of the God of the Hebrews. For it seemed right to them also to worship all gods along with the [other] nations, since their pride kept them from humbling themselves under Christ for the remission of their sins. Then what do they think of the God of Israel? For if they do not worship him, then they do not worship all gods; but if they do worship him, they do not worship him as he commanded, for they also worship others, whose worship he has prohibited. He prohibited this through the prophets, through whom he also foretold those things now done to their idols by Christians. For either angels were sent to those prophets, who figuratively showed to them by the congruence of sensible things, the one true God, creator of all things, to whom the universe is subject; and [these angels] indicated in what way he ordered his own worship. Or else some of their minds were elevated by the Holy Spirit, so that they saw with angelic vision. Either way, they served that God who prohibited the worship of other gods; and they preserved their country with the faith of piety, in the royal and priestly roles, and [preserved] those rites that prefigured the coming Christ, king and priest.

(38) But further let them say why none of the gods of the nations (whom they wish to worship, and therefore wish not to worship that one who cannot be worshiped with them) has ever prohibited the worship of another. They give them different offices and functions, and have them govern the things appropriate to each of their stations.⁽⁹⁷⁾ For Jupiter does not prohibit the worship of Saturn. (Though this is not because he is just a man who expelled another man, his father, from his kingdom. He is either the body of the heavens, or the spirit that fills heaven and earth, and therefore cannot prohibit the worship of that higher mind from which he is said to have emanated.) In the same way, Saturn does not prohibit the worship of Jupiter. (Though this is not because he is just somebody conquered by some rebel named Jupiter, from whose arms he came fleeing into Italy, but because the first mind favors the soul that it begat.) But surely Vulcan would prohibit the worship of Mars, his wife's lover. And Hercules [would prohibit the worship of] Juno, his persecutor. What sort of foul consensus is there among them, so that Diana, the chaste virgin, does not prohibit the worship, I say not only of Venus, but even of Priapus?⁽⁹⁸⁾ But if one person wants to be both a hunter and a farmer, he will have to be the servant of both, though it will embarrass him even to build their temples near each other. But they may interpret Diana as a virtue however they wish, and interpret Priapus as a god of fecundity. (Though Juno would rightly be embarrassed to have such a helper with female fertility.) Let them say what they please, and interpret as they deem wise. The God of Israel will overturn all their arguments nonetheless. He has prohibited the worship of all of them, while his worship is prohibited by none of them. He has also commanded, foretold, and accomplished the destruction of their images and rites. [By all this] he has sufficiently shown that they are false and lying, and he himself is the true and truthful God.

(39) Who does not wonder at the following? Those worshipers, now few in number, of the numerous and false gods, when asked what god [our God] is, whatever answer they give, they dare not deny he is a god, [although] they refuse to submit to him. For if they deny this, they are easily disproved by his actions, both prophesied and fulfilled. I do not speak of those things which they think they are free to disbelieve, such as the fact that in the beginning he made heaven and earth and all that is in them;⁽⁹⁹⁾ nor [do I speak] of things in remotest antiquity, such as when he took up Enoch,⁽¹⁰⁰⁾ destroyed the wicked with the flood, and saved the just Noah and his household with the wooden [ark].⁽¹⁰¹⁾ I begin the story of his acts among people with Abraham.⁽¹⁰²⁾ For a clear promise was given to him by an angelic oracle that we now see fulfilled. To him was said, "In your seed all the nations will be blessed."⁽¹⁰³⁾ From his seed were the people of Israel, from whence was the Virgin Mary, who bore Christ, in whom all the nations are blessed:⁽¹⁰⁴⁾ if they are able, let them dare to deny [this]. This promise was also made to Isaac the son of Abraham,⁽¹⁰⁵⁾ and to Jacob the grandson of Abraham.⁽¹⁰⁶⁾ Jacob was also called Israel, and the whole people got their lineage and name from him, so that the God of this people is called the God of Israel. [This is not to say] that he is not also the God of all the nations (whether or not they now know him), but he wished to reveal the power of his promises more clearly among this people. For that people first multiplied in Egypt;⁽¹⁰⁷⁾ then they were freed from slavery there by Moses, with many signs and wonders.⁽¹⁰⁸⁾ They conquered most of the nations and received the land of promise, their kings from the tribe of Judah reigning there. Judah was one of the twelve sons of Israel,⁽¹⁰⁹⁾ Abraham's grandson. From him came the Jews, who did many things with God's help, and who suffered many things when God punished them for their sins, until the promised seed came,⁽¹¹⁰⁾ in whom all the nations would be blessed, and [for whom] they willingly broke up the idols of their fathers.

(40) For what is accomplished by Christians is not just of the Christian era, but was predicted long before. The same Jews who remain enemies of Christ's name (and of whose future treachery these prophetic writings are not silent) have and read the prophet who says, "O Lord my God and refuge in the day of evil, the nations will come to you from the ends of the earth and say, 'Truly our fathers worshiped lying idols, and there is no value in them.'"⁽¹¹¹⁾ Behold, that is now happening. Behold, now the nations are coming to Christ form the ends of the earth, saying such things and breaking [their] idols. And this is a great thing that God has established beforehand for his church spread throughout the world. The Jewish people, rightly conquered and dispersed across the earth, carries our prophetic books everywhere, so that no one could suppose they were composed by us. Thus an enemy of our faith has become a witness to our truth. How then can Christ's disciples have taught what they have not learned from Christ (as those ridiculous men in their foolishness claim), in order to destroy the superstition of the gods and idols of the nations? Can they also say that those prophecies that are now read in the books of Christ's enemies were fabricated by Christ's disciples?

(41) For who other than the God of Israel has overturned them? For divine voices said to this people through Moses, "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is one.⁽¹¹²⁾... You shall not make for yourselves any idol or likeness of anything that is in heaven above or the earth below."⁽¹¹³⁾ Also, so that this people might overturn those things wherever they were able to, they were given this commandment, "You shall not worship their gods, or serve them, or do their works, but you shall completely tear them down and utterly destroy their images."⁽¹¹⁴⁾ Who will say that Christ and Christians have no connection to Israel? Israel was the grandson of Abraham, and, as I have mentioned, the following was said first to Abraham, then to his son Isaac, then to his grandson Israel: "In your seed all the nations will be blessed."⁽¹¹⁵⁾ We see this now in Christ. For from [Abraham's line] came that Virgin, of whom the prophet of the people of Israel and of the God of Israel sang, "Behold, a virgin will conceive and bear a son, and they shall call his name Emmanuel."⁽¹¹⁶⁾ By interpretation Emmanuel means, "God is with us."⁽¹¹⁷⁾ Therefore, the God of Israel has prohibited the worship of other gods, prohibited the making of idols, commanded their overthrow, and predicted through his prophet that the nations from the ends of the earth would say, "Truly, our father have worshiped lying idols, in which there is no value."⁽¹¹⁸⁾ This same God has ordered, promised, and brought about the overthrow of all these superstitions through the name of Christ and the faith of Christians. These gods (that is to say, demons), who fear the name of Christ, have prohibited [their followers] from blaspheming Christ. But these miserable people still try in vain to make this doctrine out to be something foreign to him, although Christians use it to argue against idols and to eradicate false religions wherever they can.

(42) Let them answer now concerning the God of Israel. The books of both Christians and Jews testify that he teaches and commands these things. Let them consult their own gods, who prohibit the blaspheming of Christ. If they say anything insulting concerning the God of Israel, let them respond. But whom should they consult? Or where now should they go for advice? Let them read their own books. If they think the God of Israel is Jupiter, as Varro has written (I speak now according to their opinion), why then do they not believe that the idols are to be destroyed by Jupiter? If they think [the God of Israel] is Saturn, why do they not worship him? Or why do they not worship him as he has commanded through those prophets through whom he foretold what he has accomplished? Why do they not believe that idols should be overthrown and other gods not worshiped? If he is neither Jupiter nor Saturn (indeed, if he were one of these, he would not speak against the rites of Jupiter and Saturn so much), then who is he? Among the gods, he is the only one not worshiped by them, yet he clearly overthrows the other gods, so that he alone is worshiped; he has humiliated all the proud and exalted who have risen for idols against Christ,⁽¹¹⁹⁾ persecuting and killing Christians. Indeed, it is now a question, where such people go when they wish to sacrifice, or where they hide their gods to keep them from being found and broken up by Christians. This is done out of fear of the laws and rulers through whom God exercises his power, and who are subject to the name of Christ. He promised this long ago, saying through the prophet, "All the kings of the earth will worship him, all the nations will serve him."⁽¹²⁰⁾

(43) Indeed, what was repeatedly said by the prophets is now being fulfilled, that he would abandon his impious people (though not entirely, for many Israelites, such as his apostles, have believed in Christ), and that he would humble all the proud and violent. [He did this so that] he alone would be exalted. It would be revealed to people that he alone is high and mighty, until idols are cast away by believers, and hidden by unbelievers. This will break the earth with fear and subdue the people of the earth with fear:⁽¹²¹⁾ they will fear either the law of [God] himself, or [the law] of those believers who rule among the nations and prohibit such sacrilege.

(44) I say these things briefly and for easier comprehension, as a preface to what the prophet says: "And now you, O house of Jacob, come, let us walk in the light of the Lord. For he has abandoned his people, the house of Israel, because their country is as full as it was at the beginning with their soothsayers, like those of foreigners, and many foreign children are born to them. Their country is full of silver and gold, and there is no counting their treasures. The land is full of horses, and there is no counting their chariots. The land is full of abominations, works of their own hands, and they have worshiped what their own fingers have made. And the ordinary person has bowed down and the strong man has humiliated himself,⁽¹²²⁾ and I will not forgive them. And now go into the rocks, and hide yourselves in the earth from before the fear of the Lord, and from the majesty of his power, when he arises to smash the earth. For the eyes of the Lord are high, but people are low. For the haughtiness of people will be humbled, and the Lord alone will be exalted on that day. For the day of the Lord of hosts [shall come] upon all who are unjust and proud, and upon all who are high and exalted, and they shall be humbled. [It shall come] upon all the high and exalted cedars of Lebanon, and upon all the trees of the acorn of Bashan, and upon all the mountains and all the high hills, and upon all the ships of the seaa dn upon all the spectacular beauty of ships. And human audacity shall be humbled and fall, and the Lord alone will be exalted on that day. And in caves, and in cracks in the rocks, and in caverns of the earth they shall hide all things made by hand, from before the fear of the Lord and from the majesty of his power, when he arises to smash the earth. For on that day, people will throw away the abominations of gold and silver, the empty and offensive things they made to worship, putting them into holes in the solid rock and into cracks in the rocks, from before the fear of the Lord and from the majesty of his power, when he arises to demolish the earth."⁽¹²³⁾

(45) What do they say of this God of "Sabaoth,"⁽¹²⁴⁾ which means God "of powers" or "of armies," since the powers and armies of angels serve him? What o they say of this God of Israel? For he is the God of that people from whom came the seed in which all nations were to be blessed.⁽¹²⁵⁾ Why is he alone not worshiped by those who assert that all gods should be worshiped? Why do they not believe in him, since he both disproves and overthrows the other, false gods? I have heard one of them say that he had read in some philosopher that one could learn what God the Jews worshiped from what they did in their sacred rites. He said, "He is the ruler of those elements, out of which this visible and corporeal world is built," just as the holy scriptures of his prophets clearly show that the people of Israel were commanded to worship that God who made heaven and earth and from whom comes all true wisdom. But there is no need to discuss this further: it is sufficient for me that they presume whatever they please concerning that God, who they cannot deny is a god. For if he is the ruler of the elements of which the world consists,⁽¹²⁶⁾ why is he not worshiped instead of Neptune, who is ruler only of the sea? Why not instead of Silvanus, who [is ruler] only of fields and woods? Why not instead of the Sun, who [is ruler] only of the day, or of all heavenly heat? Why not instead of the Moon, who [is ruler] only of the night, or who has special power over moisture? Why not instead of Juno, who is said to have power only over the air? For clearly, whoever rules the parts must necessarily be under the one who governs all the elements and all this massive universe: but this one prohibits the worship of all the others. Why then do they go against the command of the greater one, not only choosing to worship those [lesser ones], but even refusing for their sakes [to worship] him? But they have not discovered anything clear and consistent to say concerning this God of Israel. Nor will they ever discover such, until they discover he is the one true God, by whom all things were created.

(46) I believe that Lucan, one of their great poetic speakers, searched for who the God of the Jews was, using his own reflections as well as books. Since he did not search piously, he did not find him. But since he perceived such great proofs of him, he did not deny he was a god, but called him rather the unknown God, whom he did not find. For he says, "...and Judea, dedicated to the worship of an unknown God."⁽¹²⁷⁾ And God, the holy and true God of Israel, had not yet done by the name of Christ such things among all the nations, as he has done since Lucan's times up to today. Who now is so obstinate, that he or she does not change? Who is so senseless,⁽¹²⁸⁾ that he or she is not inflamed, when the Scripture is fulfilled, "...there is no one hid from its heat"?⁽¹²⁹⁾ Things predicted long ago in the psalm from which I just cited part of a verse have now been revealed in the clearest light. For Christ's apostles were signified by the word "heavens," for God directed them, in order to announce the Gospel. Now, therefore, "The heavens have proclaimed the glory of God, and the firmament has shown the works of his hands. Every day has brought forth speech, and every night has revealed knowledge. Now there is no language or dialect in which their voices are not heard. Now their sound has gone out to all the earth, and their words to the end of the world."⁽¹³⁰⁾ Now he has set his tent, which is his church, in the sun; that is, [he has made it] manifest. In order to do this, as it says in the passage quoted, he "came out from his chamber like a bridegroom."⁽¹³¹⁾ That is, the Word, wedded to human flesh, came out from the Virgin's womb. Now he has rejoiced like a hero and has run his course. Now his rising has been made from the end of the heavens, and his return to the end of the heavens.⁽¹³²⁾ And therefore it is completely right that the verse I mentioned in part before follows, "..there is no one hid from its heat." And still these people choose to babble about their paltry little objections, which are like stubble turned to ashes by that fire,⁽¹³³⁾ rather than like gold purged of its dross.⁽¹³⁴⁾ And now the fraudulent monuments of their false gods have been overturned, while the true promises of that unknown God have been confirmed.

(47) Therefore, those evil ones who praise Christ, but refuse to become Christians, should stop saying that Christ did not teach them to forsake their gods and break up their idols.⁽¹³⁵⁾ For the God of Israel, of whom it was predicted that he would be called the God of the whole earth,⁽¹³⁶⁾ is now called the God of the whole earth. He predicted this through his prophets, and through Christ he brought it about at the appropriate time. Indeed, if the God of Israel is now called the God of the whole earth, then what he commanded must come to pass, for the one who commands is well known. But he is known through Christ and in Christ, so that his church is spread throughout the world; through it the God of Israel is called the God of the whole earth, as those who wish may read a little earlier in the same prophet. Indeed, I may cite it myself, for it is not so long as to prevent one from citing it. For here much is said of the presence, humility, and passion of Christ, and of the body of which he is the head, that is, his church, which is called barren, for it did not conceive. For many years the church had not yet appeared, although eventually its children, the saints, would be in every nation. For Christ had not been announced by the Evangelists to those who had not heard the prophets. Further, it says there will be more children for the one who is deserted than for the one who has a husband, the word "husband" signifying either the law or the king whom the people of Israel first accepted. For at the time the prophet spoke, the Gentiles had neither accepted the law, nor had the Christian king yet appeared, although subsequently a more productive and numerous group of saints has come from the Gentiles. Therefore Isaiah speaks thus, starting with the humility of Christ,⁽¹³⁷⁾ and later turning to address the church, on to that verse we have already mentioned, where he says, "The one who brought you out, the God of Israel himself, will be called [the God] of the whole earth."⁽¹³⁸⁾

"Behold, he says, my servant will be wise and will be highly exalted and honored. So many will marvel at you, for your appearance will seem so disgusting to people, but you will be honored by them. For many nations will marvel at him, and kings will shut their mouths, for those to whom he has not been announced will see, and those who have not heard will understand. Lord, who has believed our report? And to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed? We have proclaimed him as a servant, as a root in dry ground, and he has neither attractiveness nor honor. We have seen him, and he has neither attractiveness nor beauty. But his face is downcast and his shape is disgusting to all people. He is a beaten man, one who knows how to bear infirmities. For this his face is turned away, injured, and not highly esteemed. He bears our infirmities, and is in sorrows for us. And we considered him to be sorrowful, beaten, and punished. He was wounded for our sins, and laid low for our iniquities. The price of our peace was laid on him, and by his bruises we are healed. Like sheep we have all wandered off, and the Lord gave him up for our sins. And while he was treated badly, he did not open his mouth. He was led like a sheep to the slaughter, and like a lamb that is silent before its shearer, he did not open his mouth. In humility, judgment was passed on him. Who will explain his generation? His life will be cut off from the land. By the iniquities of my people he is led to death. Therefore I will give up the evil for his burial and the rich for his death. He did not iniquity and there was no deceit in his mouth. The Lord wishes to cleanse him by beating. If you will give your soul for your mistakes, you will see the beginning of the longest life. The Lord wishes to remove his soul from sorrows, to show him the light, to make him manifest, and to justify the just one who serves many well, and he will bear their sins. Therefore he will have many for his inheritance, and he will divide the spoils of the strong. For this his soul was handed over to death and he was counted among the unjust. He bore the sins of many and was handed over for their iniquities. Rejoice, you barren, you who do not give birth; leap and shout, you who are not in labor, for the one who is deserted has more children than the one who has a husband. For the Lord has said, enlarge the site of your tent and fasten your curtains;⁽¹³⁹⁾ there is no reason to spare. Stretch out your ropes and set your stakes firmly. Again and again expand your area to the right and to the left. For your descendants will inherit the nations and you will inhabit the cities that were desolate. There is nothing for you to fear, for you will prevail. And you will not be ashamed of being despised. For you will forget your confusion forever. You will not remember the disgrace of your widowhood, since I am the Lord who made you. The Lord is his name. The one who brought you out, the God of Israel himself, will be called [the God] of the whole earth."⁽¹⁴⁰⁾

(48) What can be said against this evidence, this expression of things both predicted and fulfilled? If they think that his disciples lied about Christ's divinity, will they also doubt Christ's passion? They are not used to believing in his resurrection, but they readily believe that he suffered all the human things typical of people, for they wish to believe that he was only human. So, he was led like a sheep to the slaughter. He was counted among the unjust.⁽¹⁴¹⁾ He was wounded for our sins. By his bruises we are healed. His face was injured and not highly esteemed, beaten with hands and smeared with spit. His shape was broken on the cross. He was led to death by the iniquities of the people of Israel. He is the one who had neither attractiveness nor beauty when he was struck with blows, when he was crowned with thorns, or when he was mocked as he hung. He is the one who, like a lamb that is silent before its shearer, he did not open his mouth, when those who insulted him said, "Prophesy to us, O Christ!"⁽¹⁴²⁾ But now he is truly exalted, now he is honored highly. Now truly many nations marvel at him. Now the kings have shut their mouths, by which they used to pronounce the cruelest laws against Christians. Truly, those to whom he was not announced now see, and those who have not heard now understand.⁽¹⁴³⁾ For those nations to whom the prophets did not speak now see that what the prophets said is true. And those who have not heard Isaiah himself speaking, now understand from his writings what he said of him. Even in the very nation of the Jews, who among them believed the prophets' report? To whom was the Lord's arm revealed, which is Christ himself who was announced by them?⁽¹⁴⁴⁾ For by their own hands they committed those crimes which had been predicted by the prophets, whose [books] they had. Truly, he has now inherited many, and he divides the spoils of the strong, since he has expelled and defeated the devil and the demons, and has distributed their possessions among the fabrics of his churches and for other necessities.

(49) Then what do these perverse praisers of Christ, who are also detractors of Christians, say to these things? Did Christ, by some magical arts, cause those things to be predicted so long ago by the prophets? Or did his disciples fabricate them? Is this why the church, once barren, now is spread throughout the nations, and rejoices in [having] more children than that synagogue which had a sort of husband in the law or in its king? Is this why [the church] enlarges the site of its tent, occupying all nations and languages, extending its ropes beyond the limits of the laws of the Roman empire, even into Persia and India and other barbarous nations?⁽¹⁴⁵⁾ Is this why both true Christians and even false ones spread his name among so many peoples?⁽¹⁴⁶⁾ Is this why his descendants inherit the nations, so that they now inhabit cities that were once empty of the true worship of God and of the true religion? Is this why [the church] has not feared human threats and furies, even when the blood of the martyrs has honorably clothed it like a purple robe? Is this why [the church] has prevailed over its many violent and powerful persecutors? Is this why [the church] has not been ashamed of being despised, when it was a great crime to become or to be a Christian? Is this why [the church] has forever forgotten its confusion, because, where sin abounded, grace abounded more.⁽¹⁴⁷⁾ Is this why the disgrace of its widowhood is forgotten, since it was abandoned and derided only for a little while, and now it flourishes again with outstanding glory? To summarize: the Lord, who made [the church] and brought it out from the domination of the devil and demons, the very God of Israel, is now called the God of the whole earth. Can it be that Christ's disciples fabricated this, when the prophets, whose books are now in the hands of Christ's enemies, predicted this so long before Christ became the Son of Man?

(50) From this let them understand, that this does not remain obscure or doubtful, even to the slowest and dullest people. I say, let those who perversely praise Christ and curse the Christian religion, understand this: against their gods, Christ's disciples have learned and taught what Christ's doctrine contains. For it is found that the God of Israel commanded that everything these people wish to worship should be hated and destroyed. Because of Christ and Christ's church, this very God is now called [the God] of the whole earth, just as he promised so long ago. But if in their amazing madness they suppose that Christ worshiped their gods, and through them had such power, is it then the case that their gods were also worshiped by the God of Israel, who has fulfilled through Christ his promises that he would be worshiped in all the nations and that the other [gods] would be hated and destroyed?⁽¹⁴⁸⁾ Where are their gods? Where are the ravings of their fanatics and the predictions of their oracles? Where are the signs or omens or divinations or oracles of their demons? Why in their ancient books are no warnings or predictions found against the Christian faith, or against the truth of our prophets, which is now so clearly expressed in every nation? They say, "We have offended our gods and they have deserted us; that is why the Christians prevail against us, and human happiness falters, weakened and diminished." But let them read from the books of their prophets, where [it is said that] such events would be because of Christians. Since they want to believe that Christ worshiped their gods, let them show where at least this God of Israel, who insists on the destruction of others, is disapproved of and hated. But they will never find such a passage, unless they fabricate it themselves. If they were to produce such, it would clearly be from themselves, because of the obscurity from which they [supposedly] brought forth such an important thing. For it ought to have been proclaimed in the temples of the gods of all nations before what was predicted had happened, in order to prepare and warn those who now refuse to be Christians.⁽¹⁴⁹⁾

(51) Finally, they complain about the waning of human happiness during Christian times. But in the books of their own philosophers, they will find contempt for those same things that are now being taken away from them (despite their objections and complaints), and therefore Christian times should be given great praise. For what happiness is diminished, except that which they abused most foully and extravagantly, to the great harm of their creator? Unless these are [the signs of] evil times: that in almost every state the theaters are falling, along with the dens of vice and the disgraceful public professions, [and] the markets and strongholds where the demons used to be worshiped are falling. Why are they falling, except for the fact that they were built for the lustful and sacrilegious use of impotent things? Did not their Cicero, when praising Roscius the actor, say that he was so skillful that he was the only one worthy to go on to the stage; but also that he was such a good man, that he was the only one worthy not to approach it.⁽¹⁵⁰⁾ What else did he show more clearly, than that the stage was so foul, that the better a man is, the less he ought to have to do with it? And yet their gods were pleased at such disgraceful things, which he deemed ought to be kept away from good men. We even have an open confession of this same Cicero, that he had to appease Flora, the mother of sports, by frequent celebration.⁽¹⁵¹⁾ Such sports usually exhibit such foulness, that in comparison to them other things are respectable, even though good men are prohibited from doing them. Who is this mother Flora? What sort of goddess is she, who is flattered and appeased by vice that is more frequent and more loosely controlled [than others]? How much more respectable was it for Roscius to go on stage, than for Cicero to worship such a goddess? If the gods of the Gentiles are offended when the amount of things dedicated to such celebrations is lessened, then this makes clear of what sort they are, since they delight in such things. But if they themselves in their anger diminish these, then angering them is more useful than pleasing them. Then let them reject their own philosophers, who condemn such things in profligate people, or else let them tear down their gods, who force their worshipers [to do] such things (if indeed they can find any such [gods] either to tear down or to hide). Let them stop blasphemously blaming Christian times for the decline of their prosperity, which was dissolving into foulness and death; otherwise they only remind us to praise the power of Christ even more fully.

(52) I could say much more, but the work I have undertaken compels me now to finish this book and return to the original project. When the four evangelists seem to some not to be consistent with one another, [this raises] questions about the Gospels that I sought to solve. I tried my best to give an explanation of the ideas that they each [expressed] individually. It occurred to me first to discuss what some often ask, as to why we can produce no writings of Christ himself. For they want to believe that he wrote something (I know not what) that they find agreeable, and that he had no thoughts against their gods, but rather worshiped them with some magic ritual. [They also think] that his disciples not only lied by calling him God, by whom all things were made, when he was only a man of the highest wisdom, but also that they taught about their gods something they had not learned from him. This is why we have attacked them first concerning the God of Israel, who is worshiped by all the nations through the church of Christians, and who now everywhere overturns their sacrilegious vanities. He predicted this by his prophets so long ago, and he has accomplished what he predicted by the name of Christ, in whom he promised all nations would be blessed.⁽¹⁵²⁾ From this they ought to understand that Christ could not have known or taught anything about their gods other than what the God of Israel commanded and predicted by his prophets. By [these prophets] he promised and sent that same Christ, in whose name, according to the promise made to the fathers, all nations were blessed. This is why the God of Israel is called [the god] of the whole earth. His disciples did not deviate from their master's teaching when they prohibited the worship of the gods of the Gentiles, so that we would not pray to deaf images, or keep company with demons, or serve the creature rather than the creator with religious adoration.⁽¹⁵³⁾

(53) Christ himself is the wisdom of God, by whom all things were created; and no rational mind, either angelic or human, receives [wisdom], except by participation in this wisdom, by which we are united by the Holy Spirit, who pours love into our hearts.⁽¹⁵⁴⁾ This trinity is one God. Therefore, divine providence, mindful of mortals, whose temporal life was enthralled by the rising and falling of things, had this wisdom of God take human [nature] into the unity of his person. [He did this so that] he could be born temporally, live, die, and rise again. Saying, doing, suffering, and bearing things helpful for our salvation, he would be an example to people below of how to return [to God], and an example to the angels above of how to hold on [to God]. For unless, at one point in time, something that had not existed before came into being in the nature of the rational soul, no one could pass from the lowest and most foolish life to the wisest and most excellent one.⁽¹⁵⁵⁾ For the contemplative, truth enjoys eternal things; for the believer, faith ought to be in things that are created. Thus, people are purified through faith in temporal things, so that they may receive the truth of eternal things. One of their most renowned men, the philosopher Plato, said in his book called Timaeus: "As eternity is related to that which is created, so is truth to faith." Two are above, eternity and truth; two are below, that which is created and faith. So that we may be called back from the lowest to the highest, and so that what is created may receive eternity, we must come through faith to the truth. Because all contraries are made commensurate through some middle term, and because temporal iniquity alienated us from eternal justice, therefore there had to be some temporal justice to go between. This mediation would be temporal in its lowest dimensions, but just in its highest. Thus, by connecting with the lowest without breaking away from the highest, it would bring the lowest back to the highest. Therefore Christ was called the mediator between God and humanity, between the immortal God and mortal humanity, reconciling humanity to God;⁽¹⁵⁶⁾ he remained what he was, while becoming what he had not been. Our faith in created things is in him who is the truth of eternal things.

(54) This great and indescribable promise, this kingdom and priesthood, was revealed by the prophets to the people of ancient times, and proclaimed by the Gospel to their descendants. For it was right that at some time what had been promised by one nation would be presented to all nations. He who sent the prophets before his descent also sent his apostles after his ascension. For all his disciples, he is like the head is to the members of his body, through his humanity which he took upon himself.⁽¹⁵⁷⁾ Therefore when they have written what he showed and said to them, it cannot be said that he has written nothing himself, for his members have done what they learned from the head speaking [to them]. For whatever [record] he wished to leave us of his deeds and words, he commanded them to write down, just as if they were his own hands. Anyone who understands this partnership in unity and the members' harmonious working together in various capacities under one head will accept what he or she reads in the accounts of Christ's disciples in the Gospel, just as if he or she saw it written by the Lord's own hand, which he bore in his own body. Let us now rather investigate the kind of passages in which some suppose the evangelists wrote contrary accounts. (They can seem this way only to those who understand too little.) With these questions solved, it will be shown how the members are in real harmony in the unity of the body, not only with the intentions of the head, but also by the agreement of [their] writings.

1. Augustine seems to be implying here that writing is a more important and noteworthy undertaking than the spoken word. Although this may be unsurprising to us, it does run contrary to much of ancient culture, which still regarded writing as a more or less vulgar mnemonic device. On this, see P. J. Achtemeier, "Omne Verbum Sonat: The New Testament and the Oral Environment of Late Western Antiquity," Journal of Biblical Literature 109 (1990) 3-27.

2. Clearly, Augustine presents a rather idealized view of the inclusion and exclusion of books from the canon. On the development of the New Testament canon, see B. M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

3. Augustine may simply have in mind the four cardinal directions, or perhaps the "four corners" of the world as in Rev 7:1.

4. See Matt 10:1-16 // Luke 10:1-12; Matt 28:19-20.

5. Augustine's use of different verbs (ascendo/descendo) shows that Luke traced the lineage backwards (to God) and Matthew traced it forwards (to Jesus). For an analysis of the two genealogies, see M. D. Johnson, The Purpose of the Biblical Genealogies with Special Reference to the Genealogies of Jesus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).

6. Luke 3:31.

7. Matt 1:6.

8. See Heb 4:14-5:10; 8:1-13.

9. John 19:19-22.

10. Ps 75:1.

11. Ps 110:4.

12. See Lev 24:5-9; 1 Sam 21:6-7; Matt 12:3-4; Mark 2:25-26; Luke 6:3-4.

13. Luke 1:36.

14. Luke 1:5.

15. Luke 1:32-33; cf. Dan 7:14.

16. 1 Tim 2:5.

17. Lev 16:17.

18. John 1:1-3.

19. John 1:14.

20. John 10:30.

21. John 14:9-10.

22. John 17:22.

23. John 5:19.

24. John 13:23.

25. Matt 5:8.

26. Literally, "empties" (vacatur).

27. James 3:13; 1 Peter 2:12; 3:16.

28. 1 Cor 13:12.

29. Gen 29:16-28.

30. Contra Faustum 22, 52.

31. Cf. the different allegorizations of the two sisters in Philo, De Congressu quaerendae Eruditionis gratia, 24-33; and in Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 134. Augustine's allegorization became widely known, as shown by Dante's use of it in Purgatorio, canto 27, lines 97-108. See also the discussion in M. E. Mason, Active Life and Contemplative Life (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1961) 27-45.

32. Rev 4:7; 5:6; 7:11; cf. Ezek 1:5. Cf. the assignments of the creatures to the evangelists by Irenaeus, Adv. Haer., 3.11.8; and Jerome, Commentary on St. Matthew, preface, lines 55-67.

33. Rev 5:5.

34. Matt 2:1-12.

35. Matt 2:16-18.

36. Cf. Heb 4:14-5:10; 8:1-13.

37. Luke 1:5-25.

38. Luke 1:36.

39. Luke 2:22-24.

40. Cf. Tract. Joh. 15.1; 36.5.

41. Cf. Matt 11:30.

42. E.g. 2 Cor 1:3; 11:31; Gal 1:1; Eph 1:3; 2:18; 3:14; Phil 2:11; Col 1:3; 2:2; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1; Tit 1:4; 1 Pet 1:3; 1 John 1:3; 2:1, 24; 5:7; 2 John 3:9.

43. Cf. de civ. Dei 8.2-4.

44. Cf. de civ. Dei 8.4.

45. The image is one of frightened rodents nervously nibbling their crumbs: English "rodents" from rodo (to gnaw, nibble).

46. John 1:3.

47. Cf. de civ. Dei 2.13.

48. Cf. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 2.25; Peter and Paul thus share the same feast day, June 29.

49. Acts 2:1-4.

50. Acts 7:54-8:1.

51. Acts 8:3; Gal 1:13; Phil 3:6.

52. Acts 9:1-30.

53. Cf. contr. Faust. 12.45.

54. Cf. contr. Faust. 13.4, 15; 22.17, 24.

55. Cf. de civ. Dei 5.21.

56. Cf. de civ. Dei 1.34; 3.6; 15.5 (compared with Cain and Abel).

57. Cf. 1 Cor 1:23.

58. Isa 54:5 (where the Latin citation here differs from the Hebrew).

59. Cf. Retr. 2.16; de civ. Dei 16.11.

60. Gen 28:14; the same promise is made earlier to Abraham (Gen 12:3; 22:18) and Isaac (Gen 26:4).

61. Cf. de civ. Dei 4.34; 18.46.

62. Cf. de civ. Dei 7.25; 10.9; 19.22-23; Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 6.19.

63. Mark 1:24; Luke 4:41.

64. Ps. 96:5; cf. 1 Cor. 10:20.

65. Isa 2:18; Ezek 14:6.

66. Cf. de civ. Dei 2.14; 3.12, 25; 4.15, 23; 6.10; contr. Faust. 20.9.

67. Reading invitandos; some manuscripts read imitandos, "to be imitated."

68. Cf. contr. Faust. 13.7-11.

69. Reading fata; some manuscripts read facta, "deeds."

70. See Mark 1:24; Luke 4:34, 41.

71. Reading notior et potentior.

72. Reading audiri timeant.

73. Cf. de civ. Dei 7.19.

74. Cf. contr. Faust. 18.5; 20.13.

75. Cf. de civ. Dei 4.10-11; 6.6; 7.5.

76. Virgil, Ecl., 3.60; cf. de civ. Dei 4.9.

77. Jer 23:24.

78. Virgil, Georg., 2.325; de civ. Dei 4.10.

79. Explaining aegis as from the Greek , "goat."

80. Cf. de civ. Dei 4.27; 6.7; 7.27.

81. Cicero, Tusc. Disp., 1.13.29; cf. de civ. Dei 8.5.

82. Cicero, in Catil. 3.1.1; cf. de civ. Dei 2.15; 3.15.

83. Virgil, Ecl., 9.47.

84. The wordplay is between figo (establish, fix) and fingo (fabricate, imagine).

85. Cf. de civ. Dei 8.5, 27; 12.11.

86. Cf. de civ. Dei 7.13.

87. Virgil, Aen., 8.320-24.

88. Punning on Latium and latens (concealed).

89. X instead of C or K.

90. Playing on Saturnus and saturetur (saturated, filled up).

91. Cf. de civ. Dei 6.8; 7.9, 13.

92. Cf. de civ. Dei 4.11.

93. Cf. de civ. Dei 10.2.

94. Cf. Job 12:13; 28:12-28; Prov 8:1-36; 1 Cor 1:30; 2:7; Eph 1:17; Col 1:9; 2:3; James 1:5.

95. Cf. de civ. Dei 7.23.

96. On astrology, cf. Conf. 4.3.4; 7.6.8.

97. Cf. de civ. Dei 6.9.

98. Cf. de civ. Dei 2.14; 7.24.

99. Gen 1:1-2:1.

100. Gen 5:24.

101. Gen 6:5-8:22.

102. Gen 12:1.

103. Gen 22:18; cf. Gen 12:3; 18:18.

104. Cf. Gal 3:16.

105. Gen 26:4.

106. Gen 28:14.

107. Exod 1:7.

108. Exod 7:8-11:10.

109. Gen 29:35.

110. Gal 3:19.

111. Jer 16:19; cf. de civ. Dei 18.33.

112. Deut 6:4; cf. Mark 12:29.

113. Exod 20:4; Deut 5:8.

114. Exod 23:24.

115. Gen 22:18; cf. Gen 26:4; 28:14.

116. Isa 7:14.

117. Matt 1:23.

118. Jer 16:19.

119. Cf. Luke 1:51-52.

120. Ps 72:11.

121. Wordplay on confringo (break) and frango (subdue).

122. The contrast is between homo (person) and vir (strong or virtuous man).

123. Isa 2:5-14, 16-17, 19-21.

124. The title is the same as "Lord of hosts" Augustine used in the preceding paragraph, but here he explains its meaning. It is frequent in the OT (e.g. 1 Sam 1:3; Ps 89:8; Isa 48:2).

125. Cf. Gen 22:18.

126. Cf. de civ. Dei 4.10.

127. Lucan 2.592-93.

128. Reading torpidus; others read tepidus (cool).

129. Ps 19:6.

130. Ps 19:1-4.

131. Ps 19:5.

132. Cf. Ps 19:5-6.

133. Cf. Isa 47:14.

134. Cf. Prov 17:3.

135. Cf. Exod 34:13; Deut 7:5.

136. Cf. Isa 54:5.

137. Reading humilitate; other editions give humanitate.

138. Cf. Isa 54:5.

139. Amending the text to aulaeas; cf. epist. 105; de civ. Dei 18.29.

140. Isa 52:13-54:5.

141. Cf. Isa 53:12; Mark 15:28; Luke 22:37.

142. Matt 26:68; cf. Mark 14:65; Luke 22:64.

143. Cf. Rom 15:21.

144. Cf. Isa 53:1; John 12:38; Rom 10:16.

145. Cf. above, and Isa 54:2.

146. Cf. Phil 1:15-18.

147. Cf. Rom 5:20.

148. Cf. Exod 34:13; Deut 7:5.

149. Reading nolunt.

150. Cf. Cicero, pro Rosc. com. 6.17.

151. Cf. Cicero, in Verr. 2.5.14.36.

152. Cf. Gen 22:18; 26:4; 28:14.

153. Cf. Rom 1:25.

154. Cf. Rom 5:5.

155. Exactly Kierkegaard's point about "the moment" in Philosophical Fragments.

156. Cf. de civ. Dei 9.15; 11.2; 1 Tim 2:5.

157. Cf. 1 Cor 12:12-31; Eph 5:23.