Armenians as an American Minority

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�� The tale of Armenians is generally that of an American dream come true: a disadvantaged group, driven from their homeland, massacred at will by the invaders, and forced to make their way in an alien land struggle against discrimination and misfortune to become a powerful and successful force in their new home. In short, they are overall a prospering minority.

[Sociohistoric Background]

�� It was not always like this for Armenians. In fact, they have not enjoyed prosperity as a whole since they were invaded by the Turks in the 10th century. Previously to that, Armenian culture had existed for at least a thousand years. They were a minority within the Ottoman Empire but still flourished as they were allowed to rule themselves. After the invasion, Armenians suffered the plights of many other minority ethnic groups: they were raped, tortured, stripped of their assets, and their testimony was rejected in Turkish courts. They had no legal recourse for the indignities they endured. In fact, their situation closely resembled that of the Jews in the same region (Mirak 7).

�� In 1860, the Armenians were swept up in an "intellectual and social renaissance" that would forever change their relationship with Turkey. Encouraged by enlightened intellectuals and Western missionaries, they began to seek more independence from Turkey and more freedom for their people. This led them to create their own Constitution. While the Turkish government tolerated this behavior for a short while, this search for autonomy would eventually lead to war (Mirak 22).

�� Meanwhile, Armenians had become accustomed to living as immigrants. The first Armenian in the New World landed in 1618 or 1619 and worked as a servant to a Virginia plantation owner. He eventually gained property of his own and became mildly successful. His name was well-known in Armenia and helped establish a mythology that Armenians were pioneers of the New World (Mirak 36). By the early 19th century, American missionaries had begun to bring Armenians to America to be educated in "real Christianity," as opposed to their Apostolic Christianity. These Armenians were supposed to go back to their home and teach others the true path. In reality, many stayed in America, where their opportunities were much greater (Mirak 39).

[Migration]

[First Phase]

�� The first major phase of Armenian migration began in 1880 and lasted until 1914. These first immigrants were mainly from the lower classes and were lured by tales of overnight fortunes and limitless opportunities in America. Only about 1500 immigrants came between 1880-1890. While the numbers were small, they were only the beginning of Armenian immigration to the US (Mirak 41).

In 1890, there was a revolution in Armenian Turkey. Armenians at this time were not allowed to leave the country or even travel to the coast. By 1891, the rebellion had been quelled and Armenians were once again allowed to emigrate. During this time, approximately 12,000 Armenians came to America. Then, tragedy struck: between 1894-1896, the Turks, angry over their decreasing power in the region, declared jihad on the infidels in Turkey. This led to a massacre of the Armenians that left over 100,000 dead and 500,000 displaced. Armenian emigration to America increased rapidly in the ensuing years (Mirak 46-8).

Between 1900-1914, there was mass migration. Most Armenians came to the US during this time for three main reasons. First, Armenians had restricted rights in Turkey. They were not permitted to do much business, and there was always the fear that their assets would be frozen. They also were not allowed to travel freely. Second, taxation in Turkey was rampant, especially for minority groups such as the Armenians who had little say in the Turkish government. Finally, there was continual fear that the massacres would begin again (Mirak 50). During this time, it was fairly easy to emigrate to the United States. Armenians already living there helped bring their families over (stem migration) and organized associations that helped fund the passage of Armenians (Mirak 51).

In 1908, there was a coup in Turkey that replaced the oppressive regime with a group known as the Young Turks. Armenians everywhere rejoiced as they thought that they would enjoy more freedom under this new government. Unfortunately, this was not the case. As the government deteriorated and corruption became the norm, the Young Turks sought vengeance on the Armenians. In 1909, there was another massacre of Armenians in which 20,000 were killed. Another massacre in 1914, the largest one perpetuated by the Turks, left 1.5 millions Armenians dead. Once again, this led to a mass migration. By 1914, 60,000 Armenians had come to America (Mirak 59).

[Second Phase]

�� The Second Phase of immigration was more limited than the first as Turkey once again tried to keep Armenians within its boundaries and the United States ended its open-door policy. In 1918, at the close of World War I, Armenia gained its independence from Turkey in a move that was supported by the Allies and Woodrow Wilson in particular. This independence was not long lasting. As the Bolshevik Revolution gained more steam in Russia, the Russian Army began to look for new lands to conquer. In 1920, Turkey and Russia teamed up to conquer Armenia and annex parts of it. Armenia was now split between the Soviet Union and Turkey. Neither place was safe for the Armenian minority, so many fled to Lebanon, Iran, Greece, and the United States. However, only 30,000 were able to gain passage to the US before 1924 (Wertsmann 9).

�� The 1924 Quota System based continued immigration on inhabitants already citizens of the US. The Armenian population of that time, only a tiny fraction of the overall population, meant that the quota allowed for Armenians would be small. As a matter of fact, this system almost halted Armenian immigration. Most of the immigrants that did arrive during this time were brought to America by the American National Committee for Homeless Armenians. These immigrants had been stranded in settlement camps during World War I and II. As such, they were exempt from nationality quotas. About 25,000 Armenians immigrated this way (Amyi 11).

[Third Phase]

�� The third phase of migration began in 1965 when US immigration laws were amended to be less stringent for immigrants of non-European descent. Armenians, however did not begin to immigrate in large numbers until war broke out in the countries they had emigrated to before 1965, particularly Lebanon, which suffered a civil war in 1975, and Iran, which experienced its Islamic Revolution in 1978. From Lebanon alone, 60,000-160,000 Armenians emigrated to the US (Amiy 11).

�� Another factor in this phase of immigration was the Soviet Union?s decision to allow Armenians to leave the country. Until 1970, they had been restricted to the part of Armenia that was annexed after World War I. With this decision, approximately 61,000 Soviet Armenians came to the United States (Amiy 12).

�� In 1988, an earthquake that registered 6.9 on the Richter scale killed between 25,000 and 50,000 people (London Times). In the aftermath, many Armenians felt that with their homes and lives destroyed and little chance of rebuilding them in the Soviet Union, they could have more opportunities in the United States, especially in communities that already had an established Armenian enclave. As a result, immigration from Armenia has actually increased since 1965 and continues to do so, even though Armenia gained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1990 (London Times).

[Assimilation and Rejection]

�� The Armenian immigrants of the 1890's were met with a mixture of emotions from Americans. Some Americans offered these refugees personal bonds to pay their passage; others thought that their homes were being invaded by "aliens and paupers" (Mirak 69). However, this view quickly changed as Armenians began to build their lives in their new country. They had a number of advantages: many had backgrounds in business or skilled professions, there was an extremely high literacy rate, they had had previous experience as a minority group, and the immigrants regarded the United States as their permanent home (Mirak 77).

�� One place that Armenians did encounter some discrimination was in Fresno, California. After an Armenian clergyman and businessmen established roots there, many other Armenians began to move in. In Fresno, Armenians were excluded from joining the city's churches, clubs, fraternal organizations, and civic groups. There was a also city-wide restrictive land covenant which read: "Neither said premises, nor any part thereof shall be used in any manner whatsoever or occupied by any Negro, Chinese, Japanese, Hindu, Armenian, Asiatic native of the Turkish Empire, or descendent of the above named persons, or anyone not of the white or Caucasian race" (Mirka 144-5). This policy was not overturned until the U.S. Supreme Court case Shelly v. Kraemer in 1948, when an anthropologist testified that Armenians were technically Caucasian (Amiy 20). The residents of Fresno may have felt this animosity in part because of their native jealousy of an unusually successful minority group and because of the "stubborn pride of the Armenians" (Mirka 145).

�� For the most part, though, Armenians lived in relative anonymity. They were often lumped with Jews and Greeks as "too ambitious" and with "a crafty kind of self-interested intelligence" (Amiy 19). They were given such labels because of their overall tremendous success in business. Armenians are generally middle-class to upper-middle class, and their social mobility as a group has been rapid (Amiy 8).

�� Second, third, and fourth generation Armenian-Americans have undergone significant assimilation. For instance, the Armenian language is often no longer used in everyday communication; secular culture and cuisine is relegated to special occasions; church attendance in Armenian churches is dropping; and marriages with non-Armenians has become the norm (Amiy 5).

�� Armenian writers and professes bemoan the loss of their language. "We are losing our multigenerational thread," said one editor of an Armenian newspaper in Queens (Hedges). Rev. Krikor Maksoudian, a former professor of Armenian history at Columbia University put it this way: "Each language has its own way of describing and asserting human experience. Each contains the temper of the tradition itself. None of this can be captured fully in translation. We are losing another perspective on the world" (Hedges).

�� Presently, however, Armenian-Americans enjoy almost unparalleled success as a minority group. They face little discrimination, and usually from other minority groups rather than majority, and little prejudice. They have political clout, with the one Clinton Administration official calling the Armenian-Americans "an incredibly sophisticated force" (Auerbach). They have also been very successful in funneling US aid to Armenia. "In 1993, the tiny republic received about $300 million of US aid, second only to the colossal Russian Federation among ex-Soviet states" (Auerbach). Armenians-Americans themselves are financially able to contribute a good deal themselves - approximately $75,000,000 this year alone. As Jerrold Green of the Rand Corp. said, "The Armenians may be the real success story among ethnic groups in America" (Auerbach).

[Social and Recreational Groups]

�� Armenian-Americans have an enormous network of organizations and support groups. These include the Armenian Network of America, the Armenian Youth Federation, the Armenian Gay and Lesbian Society, Armenian Cultural Association, Armenian Club, Armenian Engineers and Scientists of America, Armenian General Benevolent Union, Armenian International Women's Association, Armenian National Geopolitical Club, Friends of Armenia, and even the Armenian Electron Microscopy Society. In addition, cities such as New York, Austin, Ottawa, Toronto, Peria, San Francisco, Chicago, Atlanta, Seattle, Providence, Boston, and, of course, Los Angeles all boast Armenian organizations (Armenian Links).

�� Religion plays a strong role in life of the average Armenian. Armenia was the first country to make Christianity its state religion, in 314 A.D. The state church is known as the Armenian Apostolic Church and is part of Orthodox Christianity (Tchilingirian). There are over 140 active Armenian churches in America, with 49 of these in California alone. Most of these churches are Apostolic, though some are Evangelical or Catholic. Almost all these churches sponsor organizations that seek to relate Armenian culture to their congregations (Kojian).

[Personal Interview]

�� Dan Calandro of Fairfield, NJ provided some introspection on being Armenian. As a 4th generation Armenian, he has little ties to the country and has never visited it. Yet he still knows about its history and traditions, mostly from his grandparents, who also live in New Jersey. "They provide me with what it means to be Armenian," he said. He attends a church that, though it is not affiliated with any Armenian church, still has a sizeable Armenian contingent. The church celebrates Armenian Earthquake Day and a day to remember the Turkish massacres. "The Armenians seem very proud to remember their heritage, but I know more about American history than Armenian," he said. In fact, he considers himself an American with Armenian ancestry. When asked if he had endured any discrimination because of his ethnicity, he replied that most people had no idea that he was Armenian or no connotation of what it meant to be Armenian: "It doesn't really affect me" (Calandro).

Works Cited

Calandro, Dan. Personal Interview. 23 November 2000.

Kojian, Raffi. "Armenian Church Directory." Online. �� http://www.cilicia.com/armo_church_directory.html#usa

Tchilingirian, Hratch. "The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church." Online. http://www.sain.org/Armenian.Church/intro.txt

"Armenian Links." Online. http://www.armenians.com/links/Organizations/

Auerbach, Jon. "Scattered, a Community Bonds; A Vibrant Culture Melds a Tragic Past with a Bright Future," The Boston Globe. 23 April 1995. National/Foreign 1.

Hedges, Chris. "Severing a Link, Word by Word; As Language Erodes, Armenian Exiles Fear Bigger Loss," The New York Times. 6 January 2000. Metro 1.

"Why Armenian Toll Was Much Higher," London Times. 19 October 1989.

Wertsmann, Vladimir. The Armenians in America: 1618-1976. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, Inc., 1978.

Mirak, Robert. Torn Between Two Lands: Armenians in America, 1890 to World War I. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983.

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