Pathfinder

Norse Mythology:

From Asgard

To Hel

Jonathan Eaker

LIS 620

Dr. James Carmichael

Table of Contents

Scope............................................................................................................................................. 3

Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 5

Subject Heading Statement...................................................................................................... 9

Classification Statement......................................................................................................... 11

Form Examples and Sources.................................................................................................. 13

��

�� Encyclopedia, Dictionary, and Bibliography.......................................................... 13

�� Primary Sources............................................................................................................ 16

�� Rewritten Stories........................................................................................................... 18

�� Literary View of Norse Writings................................................................................ 19

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�� Norse Belief in Historical Artifacts........................................................................... 20

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�� Beliefs of the Norse People.......................................................................................... 22

�� Modern Norse Religion Believers.............................................................................. 25

�� Works Focusing on Narrow Topics............................................................................ 27

�� Other� Topics................................................................................................................ 30

Publishers................................................................................................................................... 32

Scope

�� This pathfinder covers all areas associated with the mythology and religious beliefs of the Scandinavian people in the medieval era. Generally this time period is associated with the Viking age which spanned from around 793 CE until 1063 CE (the dates of the first and last Viking raids), though the Asatru will date the beginning of true Norse belief at 250 BCE when Odin received knowledge of the runes. The sources included cover the literature, culture, relics and worship associated with the Norse religion. It does not cover the history of the Vikings unless there is also an emphasis put on the religious beliefs involved. I did not include foreign works that have not been translated. They make up a substantial portion of the sources available because most study is done in Germany and Scandinavia but a lack of good reviews makes their subject matter unknown to those who don�t speak the language. The Sagas have also been omitted because, while they do contain references to Norse mythology, their focus is elsewhere. Many of the sources are not new sources (produced in the past few decades), but since the myths have not changed and many of the older sources are considered groundbreaking and still very relevant they have been included.

�� These sources were taken from libraries across North Carolina. The Libraries at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill provided many of the sources. They have a substantial collection especially for the literary sources. Jackson Library at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, D. H. Hill Library at North Carolina State University, and Atkins Library at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte all provided a number of sources. The Public Library of Charlotte and Mecklenburg County also provided several sources to the pathfinder.

�� Many terms are used to describe the religion of Northern Europe: Norse, Scandinavian, Germanic, Icelandic and Teutonic. In the pathfinder these terms are used interchangeably with Norse being the preferred term because it is the most recognizable and widely used. Also the word myth and religion are used interchangeably except in the cases where they are still believed today. �

Introduction

�� Norse mythology refers to the religion of pre-Christian Scandinavia, which includes Norway, Sweden, Iceland, and Denmark but elements of their beliefs spread to areas which the Vikings spread to such as the Germany, United Kingdom, Finland, parts of mainland Europe, parts of Russia, and even in Turkey where Viking warriors where hired as guards for the Byzantine empire. The practice of the Norse religion officially ended when the leaders of all the Scandinavian countries converted to Christianity but evidence shows that the stories from the myths were still told for at least several hundred years after the conversion. Artifacts we have recovered from the time show that many people tried to merge their Christian beliefs and Norse beliefs and that the Norse gods were still respected if not still worshipped. Almost all the information we have about Norse beliefs comes to us from a few sources, the Prose Edda, the Poetic Edda, and the History of the Danes. We also have artifacts, mostly in the form of wood and stone carvings that give us a good idea of some of their practices and worship. Some other texts do mention Norse gods or beliefs and add some to our knowledge. One major problem with reading texts associated with Norse mythology is that through the centuries spellings have changed. So in the Prose Edda Odin is referred to by many names, then in translation those are all spelled many different ways.

�� The Norse creation story begins with a large crevice, Ginnungagap, with ice on one side and fire on the other. When the ice and fire touched they formed a giant being named Ymir, and a cow named Audhumbla who licked a satly block of ice. The ice was licked into the form of a man and became Buri the grandfather of the Aesir (the traditional Norse gods). Buri gave birth to a son named Bor who in turn gave birth to Odin and two brothers. When Ymir became too evil Odin killed him causing a flood of blood which killed all of Ymir�s offspring except a giant named Bergelmir and his wife, who went on to create the race of giants. Odin and his brothers created the world with the body of Ymir. They placed his body over Ginnungagap and used his flesh to make the soil and his blood to make the seas. His skull was held up by four dwarves and created the sky, his bones became mountains, his hair trees, and his eyebrows were used to create a barrier for Midgard, the realm of the humans. Odin and his brothers found two logs on the beach and from them created the first humans.

�� A great tree (usually ash, but sometimes yew) grew out of the earth, and its name was Yggdrasil and it supported all the realms of the world. The tree is home to magical creatures that all play a part in the universe. Nidhogg the giant serpent lived beneath the tree and ate it, while four stags lived above and ate the leaves. On one branch sat a huge eagle that watched the world and on its head stood a hawk. The squirrel Ratatosk scurried up and down the tree delivering messages between Nidhogg and the giant eagle and telling of events from all the realms to them both. The Norns, the keepers of time and destiny, maintained a well at the bottom of the Yggdrasil.

�� Odin the most famous of the Gods kept two wolves by his throne and two ravens that flew out and told him everything that happened. Odin�s hall, Valhalla, was very large and was used to house and train the dead warriors, Einherjar, for battle during the apocalypse, Ragnarok. During the day the Einherjar practiced fighting and no matter what injuries they sustained they were healed at the end of the day. In the hall they were fed mead and meat from the boar S�hrimnir who regenerated every day.

�� Thor, another of the gods, was very popular and was considered more of the �people�s� god and widely worshipped. Thor used his hammer, Mjollnir, for his favorite pastime bashing trolls and giants. Thor was the god of lighting and fear of the damage it could do, he was the only god not allowed to cross Bifrost, the bridge to Asgard, the realm of the gods. He had to wade across in the water below. He had a chariot driven by two goats and the sound of the chariot rolling across the heavens is how thunder is made.

�� Norse mythology is interesting because it sets out an apocalypse of sorts, but in it the world doesn�t end, it�s just reborn. The Ragnarok is a war between all the creatures in the universe. A wolf name Skoll will eat the sun and his brother Hati will eat the moon. There will be earthquakes and the seas will rise causing the evil hound of the underworld, Fenrir, to be freed from his chains and the Midgard serpent to come on land. Many of the major gods are killed during the Ragnarok. The hound Garm will battle Tyr and they will kill each other. Surt, with a flaming sword, will kill Freyr, and later throw fire over all the realms of the world. Thor battles the Midgard serpent and defeats it but its poison later kills him. Odin battles Fenrir but the wolf devours and kills him. The most interesting aspect of all this is that the gods know all of this is going to happen but they do nothing to affect it. After the Ragnarok a few of the gods survive to rebuild the world and two humans who hid in the Yggdrasil survive to repopulate the human race.

�� Norse mythology has had an influence on modern culture. Richard Wagner used Norse themes and gods to create his four operas in the Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung). Hitler was a big fan of Wagner and used Germanic beliefs in Norse themes and deities. He used these themes to inspire his followers based on their heritage much as the Japanese did with the samurai culture at the same time. J. R. R. Tolkien used Norse themes and many names in his Lord of the Rings series. More recently other authors have used Norse mythology as the basis for their books, like Sea of Trolls by Nancy Farmer or Starkadder by Bernard King. Video games also have taken the Norse influence. In Age of Mythology you can create a Norse kingdom and in Ragnarok, an online role playing game, you become someone in a mythical society. In Scandinavia many bands have taken their names and their lyrics from the myths of the Old Norse Religion.

Subject Heading Statement

�� Many terms have been used to describe the old religion of the Northern Europe. �Norse Mythology� will always be the best search term and give you the most results. Since the religion was not restricted only to Norway, in modern times other terms have fallen in and out of favor by authors and researchers. An older term that has fallen out of favor with modern scholars is Teutonic, which usually means people of Germanic descent. Searching for �Teutonic Mythology� will return some results but keep in mind that most will be at least fifty years old. Germanic is also a term that has been used to describe these people because they originated from Germany, it is still used some today, but not as often as it once was. �Germanic Mythology� will also yield some results, more than Teutonic, but again they may not be current but you will get results from the last 50 years. �Scandinavian Mythology� will return the same types of results that Germanic will, but usually less of them. The term �Icelandic Mythology� will give the approximately the same amount of returns as Scandinavian. A term that has been used for years but is now the most politically correct is �Northern European Mythology�. Of the subjects listed so far it will return the least but the majority will be from the last 20 years.

�� The previous terms will always return results which are appropriate, but there are other terms that may be searched for. �Viking� will return a large number of results but many will focus on the history and battles and not the mythology, though many do discuss it. An additional term will probably be necessary based on what is being searched for. �Northmen� and �Norsemen� will return the same type of results as Viking with Northmen being more of a modern term.

�� For a more literature based approach searching for �Icelandic Literature� will return the most results. Searching simply for �Edda� with poetic or prose if needed will return both translations and commentary. If information is needed about a specific person or event from Norse mythology searching for them as �Odin� or �Ragnarok� will return relevant results but keep in mind that there are numerous ways to spell most words in English and in Old Norse.

Classification Statement

Library of Congress

BL 830-875 - Norse and Germanic Religion

DL 61-65 - History - Northern Europe. Scandinavia - Earliest to 1387. Scandinavian Empire. � Northmen Vikings

PD 2201-2393 - Germanic and Scandinavian Languages - Old Norse. Old Icelandic and Old � Norwegian

PT 7101-7338 - Old Norse Literature: Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian

�� The best sources of information on Norse mythology will be located in the BL 830-875 section. This is where all the books of stories and criticisms (non-literary) are kept. It is the area where most of the books with more than a passing mention of Norse mythology are placed. You will also find books that contain information on the introduction of Christianity and other related religious beliefs and stories. The DL 61-65 section is usually where books that focus on the Vikings and the Northern Europeans as a people and their migrations and battles. Sometimes more general books are placed in that section that will have a significant amount of information on the Norse religious beliefs. PD 2201-2393 is the section where books about the Old Norse Language are found. These books usually focus on the grammatical structure of literature. PT 7101-7338 holds the source texts like the Eddas and the Icelandic Saga, in both Old Norse, and in translated versions. Literary criticisms are also found here and some of them will discuss religious aspects, usually from the perspective of how it should be interpreted.

Dewey

293 - Scandinavian Religion

398.2 - Mythology

839.5 - Scandinavian Literature

839.69 - Icelandic Literature

839.82 - Norwegian Literature

948 - Vikings

�� The Dewey system is much more broken up than the Library of Congress call numbers. Good books on Norse mythology can be found both in the 293 section and in 398.2. As a very general rule the ones in 298.2 will be more focused on actual belief and study of it, while 398.2 will be books of stories telling the myths, but books on all topics in Norse mythology can be found in both places. The three literature sections are where the source texts are kept and compare to the PT 7101-7338 in LC. 948 keeps information on the Vikings themselves but will usually have some sources that mention mythology.

Form Examples and Sources

Encyclopedia, Dictionary, and Bibliography

Polom�, Edgar C. �Germanic Religion,� in The Encyclopedia of Religion, v. 5, pp 520-536. New �� York: Macmillan, 1987.

�� The Encyclopedia of Religion is a 16 volume set that that covers all religions in the world. When you search for Norse Mythology it directs you to the term �Germanic Religion.� This section is 15 pages that give a good introduction to the entire scope of the subject, not just the gods and goddesses. It tells about the religion and when it was practiced and when the texts we have were written and then translated for others to read. It discusses the culture surrounding the religion and where we have obtained the information we have about it today. Then it goes into the creation story and some of the other elements of the Norse religion like the world tree Yggdrasil. It gives an overview of the Ragnarok and the things leading up to it and what happens following it. It also describes the place of man in Norse mythology and who the major gods are and their roles. This would be a good source for someone who wants an introduction to the entire religion.

Cotterell, Arthur. The Encyclopedia of Mythology: Classical, Celtic, Norse. New York: �� Smithmark, 1996.

�� This book is broken into three sections so only the third deals with Norse mythology (pp172-251). It starts the section with a brief introduction that covers all the main points of the myths. It also has a map of the area that the Norse religion was practiced to show that it wasn�t just in Norway. The book�s entries mainly deal with people, but do mention some major places and events, like the Ragnarok. The entries are usually a few small paragraphs that give a very basic overview of the subject. This would be a good source for someone with a passing interest or is new to Norse mythology. This book serves another purpose by being full of artwork, carvings, metalwork, and even an old tapestry. Even though most of the artwork was done well after the practice of Norse religion had died out it shows how the current views of Norse mythology and culture were formed.

Simek, Rudolf. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. �� Brewer, 1993.

�� This dictionary gives short concise definitions for most of the entries it contains. It has many more entries than the Norse encyclopedias do, which limits themselves only to things from the myths. This book contains more general words and people who did things associated or influenced by Norse mythology. It has things like Wagner and characters and items from his operas which were based on Norse mythology. It also has artists who have created well known paintings of scenes from the myths well after practice of the religion had died out. The most valuable resource this dictionary provides is that under many of the foreign language entries it gives a translated meaning of the name or item and its source language and the spelling and pronunciation in other languages that the term is used. Another important feature is that it has cross-references to so that if you looked up �dvergr� it will tell you that this is the Old Norse word for what we refer to as �dwarf� and to look under that heading. In reading various Norse texts, authors use different spellings and names for the same people and items so a book like this is very valuable to someone doing research in the field.

Orchard, Andy. Cassell�s Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. London: Cassell, 1997.

�� This source is the first place to go for finding out who, what, or where something in Norse mythology is. It gives detailed definitions with background on the entry, where it�s mentioned in source texts, and in some cases some some of the translated text (usually from the Eddas). Most entries are from a paragraph to a few pages so they are long enough to give a good idea what the entry is. In many cases the information listed makes this more like an encyclopedia than a dictionary.� The author comments in the introduction that many academic scholars won�t be pleased with how short some of the entries are or that he avoided any debates on the subject matter. This makes Cassell�s a good source for people who aren�t scholars who may be reading and need to know what or who something is. It�s also informative enough to help the person that does know Norse mythology well but may need a quick reminder. If the reader wants more information each of the entries has citations at the bottom of the listing that corresponds to the very extensive bibliography in the back of the book. The bibliography is divided into sections based on the type of source which is also very helpful. The author has also included appendices that contain lists of names used in source texts for �Odin�, �Dwarves�, �Giants�, and �Troll-wives, Giantesses and Valkyries.� Most of these name are only mentioned once or twice in the source texts so they don�t have description, but if a name comes up someone can look up to see what type of creature it was. The only problem with this source is a lack of pronunciations and alternate spellings. Many of the entries are pronounced different than their English spelling and have been spelled many different ways over the last 1000 years.

Pulsiano, Phillip, ed. Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, 1993.

�� A large book, both in size and pages, this is a true encyclopedia of everything having to do with Medieval Scandinavia. In the preface the editor says they tried to make longer entries so that it serves everyone from beginners to scholars. They have chosen to use the Icelandic (which is the same as Norwegian) alphabet and stick to Icelandic naming conventions so that the entry for �Snorri Sturluson� is listed like that not �Sturluson, Snorri� like is commonly done. The encyclopedia itself includes many terms from Norse mythology like gods, places, items, and events. Names of some specific poems from the Eddas and other texts are listed. Subjects having to do with Norse mythology are also listed like �Old Norse-Icelandic Literature, Foreign Influence on.� The entries have from a few paragraphs to over 3 pages of information depending on the entry. Each entry comes with a bibliography following it of sources to look at for more information. It also includes a long index with cross-references.

Cleasby, Richard and Gudbrand Vigfusson. An Icelandic-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon, �� 1957.

�� The title of this book is a bit deceiving because it�s actually a dictionary of Old Icelandic, also known as Old Norse, which was spoken all through Scandinavia. This covers the period from around 800 A.D. through 1300 A.D., after that the language began to change and regionalize. This is almost a required source for anyone doing reading or research in the Old Norse writings and their dissection. The dictionary itself is nearly 800 pages and covers a full vocabulary of words from all of Norse culture. The first version of this dictionary took 34 years to compile and two authors because Mr. Cleasby died before it�s completion and the family found Mr. Vigfusson to finish it. A definition�s entry may range from a few words to nearly half a page in some instances. The dictionary is only one part of the value of this source. In the front it lists, with annotations, the sources used to gather the words for the dictionary and they citation number/letter in the entries. This turns out to be a great source for all Old Scandinavian sources on mythology and lore as well as anything else. That is followed by 45 pages exploring all facets of the grammar used in the old Scandinavian language, including a list of all verbs and their conjugation. Another very helpful addition is at the beginning of each letter�s section it gives a full description and etymology of the letter telling pronunciation, sources, and how it changed over time.

Lindow, John. Scandinavian Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1988.

�� This is easily the most comprehensive Bibliography of Norse mythology writings available. The bibliography itself is 501 pages with 3059 sources listed. The annotations range from a short sentence to a few that are a half page or more. They include literature, scholarly articles and books, retellings of stories, and even some translations of other works. Most of the titles are in non-English languages mostly German and Norwegian. It also contains a very extensive index that seems organized well to help find sources on any topic. This source would probably be vital to anyone doing research into Norse mythology and writings.

Primary Sources

Snorri Sturluson. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse Mythology. Translated by Jean I. Young. �� Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001.

�� The Prose Edda, also sometimes referred to as the Younger Edda or Snorri�s Edda, was written around the year 1200, at least a hundred years after belief of Norse religion was supplanted by Christianity. Snorri was a well educated man who had heard and read about the past beliefs of his people and attempted to compile them into one volume. Much of it was compiled from other sources, some of which survive but some have not, making it a good historical text. Because it was created from several sources there are some things that have been seen as contradictory and it is assumed that where things were unclear or clearly contradictory, Snorri tried to decide which was more correct or make a compromise. It is sometimes alleged that Snorri decreased the role of women in the myths. This along with the Poectic Edda is the most complete record we have of the old beliefs because the believers left few documents behind. The Prose Edda is in three parts, Gylfaginning, Sk�ldskaparm�l, and H�ttatal. Gylfaginning is written as the story of King Gylfi visiting Odin who actually appears as a trinity of High One, Just as High, and Third who are said to correspond to the Christian trinity of God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, and possibly a way of Snorri imparting his Christian beliefs into these beliefs of the past. Here the trio tells the king about the world giving names and locations and how things came to be. Sk�ldskaparm�l was written from Skaldic poetry of the time that was passed down. It is many shorter mythical stories all compiled in one section. H�ttatal is a poem dedicated to King Harkon but it is written in 100 different poetic meters and it gives us an idea of Old Icelandic meter rules. As a source anyone doing any type of research or with an interest in Norse Mythology must use this source as it is one of the primary sources we have of the Norse Religion. There are many versions available done by various translators and most are easily read by anyone.

The Poetic Edda: The Mythological Poems. Translated by Henry Adams Bellows. Mineola, NY : �� Dover, 2004.

�� The Poetic Edda,� also known as the Elder Edda or S�mund's Edda (wrongly attributed to S�mund the Learned when it was found in the 17^th century), is a collection of 34 poems that can be divided into two sections, the Mythical poems and the Heroic poems. The Poetic Edda is considered to be more of an exact retelling of the myths than the Prose Edda which Snorri retold, but both combine to form a good picture of the Norse religion. The Mythical poems go through different stories of the gods and magical people and creatures. Among them the story of Thor and Tyr fishing and Thor catches the Midgard Serpent but lets him go, which later proves important because during the Ragnarok it is the Midgard serpent that kills Thor. Another is the the myth of Balder�s nightmares that are so disturbing Odin travels to the underworld to find out what the cause is. He finds out they foretell the death of Balder and the fall of the gods. As with the Prose Edda there are many translations and this is one of the most important source documents for anyone studying Norse mythology. The stories are told in poetic form which sometimes can be a little harder to read than the Prose Edda but most translators have done a good job making it understandable.

Saxo Grammaticus. The History of the Danes, Books I-IX. Translated by Peter Fisher. Rochester, �� NY: D. S. Brewer, 2002.

�� The Danish author Saxo Grammaticus was asked by the Archbishop Absalon to write the History of Denmark sometime around the beginning of the 13^th century. The text was then lost then rediscovered and printed in 1514. Much of it is historically correct but he had the same problems many historians do with finding information from far back that was never recorded. He relied on many of the traditional songs, poems, and stories to fill in this part of the history. His accounts have many of the Norse myths that the Eddas have, but some with different details. It being the only good source of material outside of Iceland gives scholars a way to compare stories and maybe determine their origins. Among other stories included are an early version of Beowulf and Hamlet. Traditionally Saxo has received much less study from Norse mythology scholars but his work has been well studied. Like both the Eddas, this book has been translated many times by many people and it is a vital source for anyone studying Norse mythology.�

Rewritten Stories

Branston, Brian. Gods & Heroes from Viking Mythology. New York: Schocken Books, 1978.

�� This is about the simplest book on Norse mythology one could find that still gives a good telling of the stories. It has 30 stories written separately and simplified some so that they are told more like self contained folk tales than the interconnected stories from the Eddas. Each story has all the major points. The writer has created dialog in many of the stories where there was none in the original poectic versions. This makes the stories sound like how they may have been told when passed down by oral tradition rather then written for informational purposes. This is a good source for someone looking for a fun short telling or as an introduction but probably too simple for anyone else. There are lots of illustrations by Giovanni Caselli which do a good job of showing scenes from the myths. In the back of the book they have included a short section on symbols in Nordic myths and a sentence explaining each of the illustrations in the book. On the title page they have a drawing of the Yggdrasil with all of the major gods and beasts in approximately the correct location which makes a good visual aide.

Mackenzie, Donald Alexander. Teutonic Myth and Legend: An Introduction to the Eddas & �� Sagas, Beowulf, the Nibelungenlied, etc. New York: W. H. Wise & Company, 1934.

�� Even though it�s an older source this is one of the best compilations and telling of the Norse and Germanic myths. The stories are in an order that is as sequential as possible so that when a new character is introduced you get a feel for who they are when they are mentioned again. Each chapter, which may contain many stories strung together, has listed at the beginning the stories that are contained in it. The stories cover Norse myths, British tales and some Icelandic Sagas. The index is very well done to aid someone if finding what they need. The stories are told as stories, not translated literature or poetry which can make it more engaging for some readers. Some people may be turned off by the somewhat antiquated writing style as in this description of Odin, �White was his beard and long, and he seemed ever to brood deeply over the mysteries of life and death.� This makes a very good source for someone wanting to read the myths for the first time or wants an approachable translation of the source texts.

Literary View of Norse Writings

Glendinning, Robert J. and Haraldur Bessason, ed. Edda: A Collection of Essays. Manitoba: � University of Manitoba Press, 1983.

�� This is a collection of essays from the leading Norse mythology researchers in the field. These essays are meant to look at the Eddas from a literary point of view instead of a historical, religious, or sociological one. They cover a wide array of topics. Hilda Davidson has an essay on Insults and Riddles in the poetic Edda while another essay by Joseph Harris discusses the poems as oral tradition and how exactly they may have been performed. Several other essays take a deep look at the structure and language used in the old poems and other writings. This is a book written for scholars in either Norse mythology or Icelandic literature, it requires a good knowledge of the Eddas, poem structure, and literature criticism.

Hallberg, Peter. Old Icelandic Poetry: Eddic Lay Skaldic Verse. Lincoln, NE: University of �� Nebraska Press, 1975.

�� In the introduction of this book Mr. Hallberg says that he hopes his text will be used both by scholars and students of Icelandic and Skaldic poetry but also lay readers who have an interest in the subject. The purpose of this book is to introduce the Eddas and other related poetry to the reader so they can get the most out of it. He starts with a chapter on Snorri Sturluson and his overall writing style. He next takes the reader through the poetic form of the Eddas and Skaldic poetry, showing examples of meter and recurring themes. He then devotes the rest of the book to discussion of the Eddas, Skaldic poems, and some early Christian poems, devoting a chapter to each. This would be a good companion piece for someone reading any of the works he discusses and could also be used as a reference book for Old Icelandic poetry style and characteristics.

Thurin, Erik Ingvar. The American Discovery of the Norse: An Episode in Nineteenth-Century �� American Literature. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1999.

�� This is not a book on Norse mythology itself but its influence on American writers of the nineteenth century. There is an introduction that tells a little about old Scandinavian writing and how it interest in it was renewed in the eighteenth century. It goes on to explain how it influenced writers in the nineteenth century and specifically ones in the United States. It devotes a chapter each to Emerson, Thoreau, Melville, and Longfellow. Then a chapter on other writers and one devoted to female writers. These chapters discuss these authors works, how they discovered and wrote about the texts and how it influenced their works. It�s a book of literary analysis and some criticism and requires a fairly thorough knowledge of the author�s styles and their writings.

Norse Belief in Historical Artifacts

Davidson, H. R. Ellis. Pagan Scandinavia. New York: F. A. Praeger, 1967.

�� The preface of this book says it is designed as a �survey of archeological evidence from Scandinavia which throws light on the religion of pagan times.� Since it only uses what artifacts have been found, and much of that is in graves, this book has lots of detail on the rituals and beliefs about the dead. From where they when they die to methods of burial, or in some cases the use of a funeral ship, that all tie back to their religious beliefs. This book contains very detailed maps, pictures and drawings which help the reader better understand the concepts that are being discussed. It is written as a mainstream text so it�s easy for anyone to understand and never goes too in-depth on any one topic.

Davidson, H. R. Ellis. Scandinavian Mythology. London: Hamlyn, 1969.

�� This book covers all of Norse mythology briefly from before the Bronze Age until Christianity took over. What this book does really well is describe the physical artifacts we have found and shows large detailed photos of them. The text tells what has been found associated with a certain god or myth and simple explanation of how it was made or how it was used. There are many carvings from simple to very intricate that show details of Scandinavian beliefs and everyday life. There are also helmets and shields and larger artifacts like ships and wagons. There is metal work in the form of jewelry and a musical instrument. There are also a few photos of human remains, one being the very well preserved head of a man who was strangled and placed in a peat bog. There are some examples of architecture to show how people lived back then. This source doesn�t provide the in-depth information other sourced so but it does show how they practiced their religion in their everyday lives. This would be a good source for someone who wanted to go beyond the stories and see what the people who believed them were like.

Steinsland, Gro, ed. Words and Objects: Towards a Dialogue Between Archaeology and History �� of Religion. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, 1986.

This is a book of 18 essays on how the Norse religion is expressed in physical artifacts that we have found left by them. Things like jewelry and ornaments, rock carvings and paintings, and graves and corpses. Each one is fairly short, around ten to twenty pages, but gives a deep analysis of its topic. Two of the essays aren�t in English which may make them not very helpful to most people. Most are written as scientific papers with hypotheses, findings, and then interpretations. There are illustrations of carvings, paintings, and locations of stones with a few actual photographs of artifacts. This book would not be of interest or approachable to most people looking for information on Norse mythology except scholars doing research since the gods and stories are only mentioned in how they correlate with what has been found.

Gelling, Peter and Hilda Ellis Davidson. The Chariot of the Sun, and Other Rites and Symbols of �� the Northern Bronze Age. New York: Praeger, 1969.

�� This isn�t a book on Norse mythology but rather a book about the relics and symbols used by the Northern Europeans. Gelling writes about the pre-Bronze Age people while Davidson concentrates on the Bronze Age people. Gelling tends to focus more on physical items and drawings more, partly because there is little else left from that period. Davidson focuses more on symbols and how they relate to the beliefs of the people. Each author has included lots of illustrations to show what they are talking about. Each section of the book is short enough for someone with a general interest to read it�s written on a level that anyone could understand.

Beliefs of the Norse People

Grimm, Jacob. Teutonic Mythology. Glouchester, MA : Peter Smith, 1887.

�� This is a translation of Grimm�s ground breaking work in German Mythology originally published in Germany as Deutsche Mythologie. Grimm better know as one half of the Brothers Grimm, was a researcher of all German culture, not just folk and fairy tales. This set comes in four volumes, the first coming out in 1844 with the final one coming out in 1876 after his death. It is one of the most important writings on Norse mythology because it was the first real attempt to take all of the writings from different countries and times and compare them to make one coherent picture of the beliefs. It covers many subjects like the various gods, poetry, magic, the sky, seasons, death, and many other recurring themes. Much of his discussion is analysis of the various names and syntax from the various languages and what things were same or tied together through the different poems and stories. He also does a lot of interpretation on what these things mean and how these people did used them in their religious beliefs. As would be expected in a source this old there are some inaccuracies and some of his interpretations are today disputed but this still is an excellent source and is still often cited. This would be essential reading for anyone doing research into the old texts and may be of interest to someone wanting to understand the deeper meanings in the myths. To get the most out of these books a reader would want to have some understanding of the languages the source texts are in.

Turville-Petre, Gabriel. Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. �� New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1964.

�� This is an in-depth look at some of the gods, people, and themes from Norse mythology. It starts by going over where we have gathered our current knowledge of Norse mythology. It gives a good intro on who Snorri Sturluson and Saxo Grammaticus were and how they both received there knowledge when the Norse religion was falling out of favor during the rise of Christianity. The most written about gods, Odin, Thor, Balder, Loki, and Heimdall, get their own chapters. Each of these chapters goes through the myths associated with that god. What is valuable is that it gives how each tale was told by the writer, whether he was spoken of good, bad or indifferent. It also talks about what scholars at that time thought it meant and where it came from. It also gives historical insight like how Thor was very popular as the �heathen� age entered, Balder had a very large cult following, yet Loki wasn�t worshiped by anyone at the time. There are even comparisons between religions (Balder to Jesus, Odin to Zeus, etc). The next set of chapters is about people, the Vanir, lesser deities, divine kings and heroes, and guardian spirits. The last set of chapters deal with various topics like sacrifice.

Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1964.

�� This book is a simple yet thorough guide to Norse mythology by one of the leading researchers in the field. It doesn�t just tell the stories but goes into how they tie together with culture, historically, and to other religions of the time. It is written on a level that anyone can understand. It would if the reader knows at least a little of the mythology and background but the author does provide enough information that someone new to the subject matter wouldn�t be lost. The book is only 251 pages and isn�t meant as a full guide and it only focuses on the most popular myths and gods. It does cover those areas well enough to satisfy most people who just want an interpretation of the stories. This would be a good source for someone with a casual or even heavy interest in the subject. It�s too simplistic for someone doing most academic research. A valuable resource this book offers is the �Names and Sources� section. Here it has a short pronunciation guide and short glossary of terms with a sentence definition, making it a good quick reference.

Turville-Petre, Gabriel. The Heroic Age of Scandinavia. Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1976.

�� The aim of this book is to look at the lives of Scandinavian people before the death of Olaf Haraldsson, also known as St. Olaf, in 1030. Since religion and mythology were a large part of the people�s lives it is mentioned in this book quite often. There are no myths per se but there are stories of fighters and rulers who looked to the gods for strength and wisdom. The book starts by explaining where we have obtained the information we have today both through texts and archeological artifacts. He then has a chapter on the Old Norse Language and the magical runes. In Norse myth the runes were discovered when Odin hung from a tree for nine days while not eating and having been injured with a spear. Mr. Turville-Petre then goes on to tell about heroes in various places and of their deeds. Much of the rest of the book is a chronological description of leaders and major events that took place in Medieval Scandinavia. This is not a lengthy, in-depth book (196 pages) and would serve as a good introduction to the history of the Scandinavian people and what part their beliefs played in their achievements.

DuBois, Thomas A. Nordic Religions in the Viking Age. Philadelphia: University of �� Pennsylvania Press, 1999.

This book deals with the different, diverse issues in Norse religion. It is written almost as if each chapter is a separate paper on a different topic, but they cover a wide variety of topics. This book is meant for a well informed scholarly reader or researcher. It assumes you know about the history, writing, and culture and Mr. DuBois provides his interpretation. He uses the old Norse spelling for names which does differ from the usual English spellings so a knowledge of that is also needed. The bibliography at the end of the book is very extensive, and while it contains many foreign language texts it also includes many of the more well known scholarly writings on the subject.

Davidson, H. R. Ellis. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic �� Religions. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1988.

�� This book deals with both physical and spiritual symbols in Norse and Celtic religions. Though the beliefs of the two differ, Ms. Davidson says that the two cultured interacted and share some symbols. There are also sections that pertain to each religion separately. She covers things like burial mounds, trees, and ceremonial drinking and more philosophical topics like why Odin is a god of war and the meaning of the goddess of fertility. There are no stories; just discussion of what we know about these people may have stood for. It�s written with someone who has had a good background in Norse (and Celtic) mythology, but not necessarily at a research level.�

McKinnell, John. Both One and Many: Essays on Change and Variety in Late Norse Heathenism. Roma: Il Calamo, 1994.

�� This collection of essays looks at elements of the Norse religion that either changed over time or was introduced after worship had already begun. There is a good study of the god Loki who is unusual among the gods because he was neither worshipped nor loathed and did both good and bad acts causing him to be viewed in different ways by different groups of people. He also discusses Porr and Geirrodr, a god and a giant who appeared well after most Norse mythology had been established. Also looked at are several poems and their meanings. This is a book designed for someone researching in the field of Norse mythology. It takes a long look at several very narrow topics. The book does include a very long appendix which discusses how to interpret some of the Norse poems which is very helpful to any reader.

Rohan, Michael Scott, Allan J. Scott. The Hammer and the Cross. Oxford: Alder, 1980.

�� The focus of this book is the conversion of the Norse people to Christianity. It first talks about Norse beliefs but then goes into how Christianity rose to power. Most of the book centers on the historical aspects of the conversion but it does discuss how the beliefs of the two religions differed and caused unrest in the whole Scandinavian region. It also discusses how some Christian and Norse beliefs where integrated as in the case of Hell and Hel, and of a crucifix from the period which has leaves and branches on the background representing both Jesus on the cross dying for people�s sins and Odin hanging on the Yggdrasil to learn the secret of the runes. This source is good for anyone who wants to know the history of the fall of the Norse beliefs and can be read by anyone.

Modern Norse Religion Believers

Robinson, B. A. Asatru (North Heathenism). 2005. On-line. Available from �� <http://www.religioustolerance.org/asatru.htm/>. Internet. Accessed 16 April 2005.

�� The Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance have put together informational pages on many religions, especially those outside the mainstream. This is their page devoted to Asatru, the modern religion that follows the Old Norse mythological and cultural beliefs. It gives an introduction to the historical background of the beliefs. It also describes how the religion was corrupted by Hitler�s National Socialist Party to blend with its discriminatory beliefs. It describes the beliefs, practices, rituals, and seasons that are important to the religion. In the text they also tell some of the regional differences in practices. This site that gives a neutral, unbiased description of the modern religion as it is practiced today.

Raven Online. 17 March 2002. On-line. Available from <http://www.webcom.com/~lstead/>. Internet. Accessed 16 April 2005.

�� This is the homepage of the Raven Kindred South, an Asatru group that covers Maryland, Virginia, and Washington DC. They have a page that describes their group�s practices, meetings and membership. They also provide pages about their worship and beliefs and some background on the religion. They even have the Ravenbok, their group�s book of rituals online for anyone to read. They have included some lists of links to other groups, other pages about Asatru, and legal issues associated with creating an Asatru group and things like marriage and death. This site created by practicing Asatru members is very pro-Asatru but it give a good idea of how the old Norse mythology still prevails today in some people�s everyday lives.�

Northvegr Foundation Homepage. 2005. On-line. Available from <http://www.northvegr.org>. �� Internet. Accessed 16 April 2005.

�� The Northvegr Foundation is a group formed to promote and educate people about the people, beliefs, and history of Northern Europe from the 8^th century to the 12^th century. Their homepage contains a wealth of information free of charge and available to anyone who has internet access. They run a spiritual belief section called Heithni but state that is spiritual without being related to other new age, occult, or racist groups. Their biggest project is to proofread and correct classic texts on Norse mythology and translate ones that have never appeared in English. In their texts section they have all the old primary sources like the Eddas, Sagas, Old texts, etc. They also have the full text of many books and articles on Norse mythology covering areas like traditional folklore, poetry, culture, and ethics. These texts are a very valuable asset to anyone reading more on Norse mythology and anything related to it, because they have all the texts, in one place, which a person needs to start learning about the subject. Since they are online, it�s easy for someone who has already read them to do a search for the story or section they need. They have also a section devoted to learning about the Old Icelandic and Old English languages. It includes primers and dictionaries (including An Icelandic-English Dictionary in its entirety) to aid those learning and studying the old texts.

Works Focusing on Narrow Topics

Davidson, Hilda Ellis. The Battle God of the Vikings: The First G. N. Garmonsway Memorial �� Lecture Delivered 29 October 1971 in the University of York. York: University of York, �� Center for Medieval Studies, 1972.

�� This short monograph is focused totally on the god Odin. Since it was originally made for a lecture it is short (33 pages) meaning that it never goes too in depth on any one aspect but it does cover a wide area of topics on Odin. It goes into how Odin was represented in carvings and other relics, his spear (Gungnir), his horse (Sleipnir), and his status and responsibilities among the gods. It is accessible to anyone with a basic knowledge of Norse mythology, and would be a good source for someone wanting more information on the most prominent of the gods.

Perkins, Richard. Thor the Wind-Raiser and the Eyrarland Image. London: Viking Society for �� Northern Research, University College London, 2001.

This is a very thorough study of the god Thor and what is referred to as the Eyrarland(named after the place in Iceland it was found) image, a well known but rather unusual statue of Thor seated clutching his hammer (or something else depending on who you listen to). He looks at Thor from a number of angles like his place as a wind god and his hammer Moljnir. But the focus of the book is interpretation of artifacts. He looks at a number of statues similar to the Eyrarland one and compares and contrasts them. He even introduces an idea that comparing these statues to some similar Egyptian ones and some statues of the Buddha, that these cultures and their gods had an influence on the Norse creation of Thor and their imagery. This book requires a very good knowledge of the topics and history and would be useful mostly to scholars in the field.

Näsström, Britt-Mari. Freyja, The Great Goddess of the North. Lund, Sweden: Dept. of History �� of Religions, University of Lund, 1995.

�� This is a book focusing on the goddess Freyja, the most prominent of the female characters. The author said she chose to focus on her because Freyja has not been studied as much as the male gods. Freyja is covered from every angle from where she appears, and what previous research has been done to her realation with other gods and goddesses and how she has changed after the introduction of Christianity. This text is meant as a scholarly source but it is written so that if one knows the stories and the history then it�s not to hard to follow along.

Jochens, Jenny. Old Norse Images of Women. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996.

�� Until fairly recently most study of Norse mythological figures focused on the male gods and characters like Odin, Thor, and Balder. Now scholars have started to study the female characters and goddesses and this book is the most thorough and comprehensive study to have been done. The author starts by giving a brief overview of the Norse religion and history of its people. She then goes into the section entitled �Divine Images� where she first looks at goddesses and groups of women like the Norns and the Valkyries. She then discusses rites and actions associated with these women like marriage and child bearing. Then she explain how the earliest records show a stronger place for women and suggest that maybe Snorri purposely or involuntarily diminished the role of these women. The next section of �Human Images� describes more historically the place of women in Norse culture, like their place in battle and in leadership. At the end of the book Ms. Jochens has provided an extensive notes and bibliography section that documents all her sources by page and line number usually. This book shows another side of the Norse religion that many have probably never heard about.

Winterbourne, Anthony. When the Norns Have Spoken: Time and Fate in Germanic Paganism. �� Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univerysity Press, 2004.

�� In the Norse religion the 3 Norns, Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld, live at the bottom of the world tree Yggdrasil and determine the lives of people and events that will happen. This source was created to study how the Norns and fate are mentioned and used in Norse mythology. He also discussed their philosophical viewpoint on time. Winterbourne compares the Norse beliefs to those in other cultures and also looks at how these topics are written about in texts. This is meant as a scholarly essay but it is accessible if one knows background on the religion and some idea of philosophical concepts of time, space, and views of the world.

Martin, John Stanley. Ragnarok: An Investigation into Old Norse Concepts of the Fate of the �� Gods. Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1972.

�� One of the most intriguing concepts in Norse mythology is that of the Ragnarok in which many of the gods are killed, including Odin and Thor. Unlike many other religion�s apocalyptic stories, the world and surviving gods do continue to go on. This book looks at the Ragnarok from all perspectives, from writings and rituals to interpretation on why these things would happen and what it meant to the Norse people. The book which came out in 1972 is highly respected and still considered the authority on Ragnarok studies. Despite being a scholarly text most of it is very readable to anyone with some knowledge of the Ragnarok myth and some Scandinavian history. The author does use an odd naming convention in using the oldest spelling found in the pre 16^th century texts even if they aren�t used very much, but this isn�t too much of a problem.

Ciklamini, Marlene. Snorri Sturluson. New York: Twayne, 1978.

�� This biography gives insight into the life of the man who wrote most of what we know about Norse mythology. Snorri lived a very interesting life. In addition to becoming one of the most powerful men in Iceland and going from having nothing to being the richest man in Iceland, he was murdered through the actions of his former sons-in-law. Since very little about Snorri�s day-to-day life has survived the actually biography section is rather short. The remainder of the book is devoted to telling how Snorri found the sources for his writings, what they meant at the time and to him, and also some interpretation of them. This source would be valuable to someone wanting to insight on the man behind the myths and how he collected his works. It also provides a good introduction to the works he helped bring to the modern world.

�Other� Topics

Kremer, J�rgen W. �Mythic Storytelling: Re-envisioning Stories from the North.� ReVision 27 � no. 1 (2004):� 19-30.

�� The myths and beliefs of the Norse people were passed down by oral tradition. Today some storytellers would like to relive that tradition with their own original stories. This article discusses how to preserve the integrity of the culture and history while creating a new story that uses elements from it. The author discusses the origins of the information we know today. There is also a discussion of how culture was organized so that the story stays true to real ones. The author has included some original stories that involve various gods and goddesses and more folkloric elements like the significance of animals and trees. The discussion that precedes the stories takes some knowledge of storytelling and literature to fully understand.

Smith, Edward W. L. �Informed by the Ancients: Norse Mythology and Psychotherapy.� �� Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 40 no. 3 (1999): 217-220.

�� Interpretation of Norse mythology has been done from many perspectives but this article uses some passages from the myth of Kvasir who was consider the wisest being of all and who was later killed by dwarves who used his blood mixed with honey to make mead. It is said he was created in a truce between the Vanir and Aesir through a combination of their spittle. The article takes some of the things Kvasir said and did to make an argument that that Norse people had an understanding of counseling and psychotherapy. In the translation of the myth it describes how Kvsir asked simple questions like �What do you think?� and he made people feel like they had been helped to answer their own questions. Most of the article is dissection of the myth and how it compares to modern psychology. Before reading it would be good to have a knowledge of the myth and some understanding of psychology.

Metzner, Ralph. The Well of Remembrance: Rediscovering the Earth Wisdom Myths of Northern � Europe. Boston: Shambhala, 1994.

�� This is definitely one of the more interesting books on the topic of Norse Mythology and the history of Northern Europe. It really runs the gamut on material included; it has one main author but a few chapters by other authors. In the book it takes a historical, cultural, and literary look at the myths but it also takes a non-scholarly approach in some areas, sometimes taking a more mystical or philosophical look at the myths. In some places the author will include his own personal feeling or experiences like in the section about Odin�s self sacrifice he compares Odin�s hanging on the tree with no food and water to a vision quest he once took in the Mohave Desert, where he physically suffered but saw new things and old things differently. In one of the chapters about �The New Berserkers� by another author, Norbert J. Mayer, that author talks about his experiences with past life regression where he was a Norse berserker walking across the plain and interacting with other berserkers. He also includes what I assume is his own poetry associated with the subject. There is included a brief chronology of Scandinavia that helps put all the events of the time into perspective. The appendix discusses different plants and foods, their significance in myths and to the northern European people, and their affects. Someone looking for a semi-historical yet New Age look at the Norse mythology and beliefs will want to check out this book.

Publishers

�� There are English publishers who specialize in Norse mythology publications. For the primary source materials and for retold stores many publishers have created their own versions. Many translations are there, some with explanation, and books of stories come in all levels. For more analytical information or a discussion on religious beliefs, publishers of books on cultures and religions will usually dedicate at least one book to Norse mythology. For higher-level criticisms University presses are the best place to look along with journals on religion, culture, literature, or sociology.