U.S. Department of State
Background Notes: UN, July 2000

Official Name: United Nations

PROFILE

Established: By charter signed in San Francisco, California,
on June 26, 1945; effective October 24, 1945.

Purposes: To maintain international peace and security; to
achieve international cooperation in solving economic,
social, cultural, and humanitarian problems and in promoting
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms; to be a
center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining
these common ends.

Members: 188.

Official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Russian, Spanish.

Principal organs: Secretariat,General Assembly, Security
Council, Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council,
International Court of Justice.

U.S. Funding for UN System (FY 1998, est.): $2.44 billion.
Components--Assessments for UN regular budget and UN
specialized agencies: $653 million. Assessments for UN
peacekeeping--$210 million. Voluntary contributions to
UN-affiliated organizations and activities (largely
humanitarian programs)--$1.58 billion.

Secretariat

Chief Administrative Officer: Secretary General of the
United Nations, appointed to a 5-year term by the General
Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
Secretary General: Kofi Annan (term began January 1, 1997).

Staff: The UN Secretariat at the end of 1999 had a staff of
13,579, including 1,753 Americans. UN subsidiary bodies,
specialized agencies, and the IAEA employ an additional
37,981 people, including 1,881 Americans.

General Assembly

Membership: All UN members except Yugoslavia, which was
suspended in 1992.

President: Elected at the beginning of each General Assembly
session.

Main committees: First (Political and Security); Second
(Economic and Financial); Third (Social, Humanitarian, and
Cultural); Fourth (Special Political and Decolonization);
Fifth (Administrative and Budgetary); and Sixth (Legal).
Many other committees address specific issues, including
peacekeeping, outerspace, crime prevention, status of women,
and UN Charter reform.

Security Council

Membership: Five permanent members (China, France, Russia,
U.K., U.S.), each with the right to veto, and 10
nonpermanent members elected by the General Assembly for
2-year terms. Five nonpermanent members are elected from
Africa and Asia combined; one from eastern Europe; two from
Latin America; and two from western Europe and other areas.
The 2000 nonpermanent members are Argentina, Bangladesh,
Canada, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mali, Namibia, the Netherlands,
Tunisia, and Ukraine.

President: Rotates monthly in English alphabetical order of
members. Economic and Social Council

Membership: 54; 18 elected each year by the General Assembly
for 3-year terms. The U.S. has always been a member.

President: Elected each year.

International Court of Justice

Membership: 15, elected for 9-year terms by the General
Assembly and the Security Council from nominees of national
groups under provisions of the International Court of
Justice Statute. A U.S. citizen has always been a member of
the Court.

BACKGROUND

The idea for the United Nations was elaborated in
declarations signed at the wartime Allied conferences in
Moscow and Tehran in 1943. The name "United Nations" was
suggested by President Franklin Roosevelt. From August to
October 1944, representatives of the U.S, U.K., France,
U.S.S.R., and China met to elaborate the plans at the
Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington, DC. Those and later
talks produced proposals outlining the purposes of the
organization, its membership and organs, as well as
arrangements to maintain international peace and security
and international economic and social cooperation. These
proposals were discussed and debated by governments and
private citizens worldwide.

On April 25, 1945, the United Nations Conference on
International Organizations began in San Francisco. The 50
nations represented at the conference signed the Charter of
the United Nations 2 months later on June 26. Poland, which
was not represented at the conference, but for which a place
among the original signatories had been reserved, added its
name later, bringing the total of original signatories to
51. The UN came into existence on October 24, 1945, after
the Charter had been ratified by the five permanent members
of the Security Council--China, France, U.S.S.R., U.K., and
U.S.--and by a majority of the other 46 signatories.

The U.S. Senate, by a vote of 89 to 2, gave its consent to
the ratification of the UN Charter on July 28, 1945. In
December 1945, the Senate and the House of Representatives,
by unanimous votes, requested that the UN make its
headquarters in the U.S. The offer was accepted and the UN
headquarters building was constructed in New York City in
1949 and 1950 beside the East River on donated land, which
is considered international territory. Under special
agreement with the U.S., certain diplomatic privileges and
immunities have been granted, but generally the laws of New
York City, New York State, and the U.S. apply.

UN membership is open to all "peace-loving states" that
accept the obligations of the UN Charter and, in the
judgment of the organization, are able and willing to
fulfill these obligations. Admission is determined by the
General Assembly upon recommendation of the Security
Council. There are currently 188 members; with the admission
of Tuvalu (expected in September 2000) there will be 189.

U.S. PARTICIPATION IN THE UN

The U.S., as the world's leading political, economic, and
military power, has an especially strong interest in
cooperating with the multilateral system. The U.S. can
pursue many of its interests more effectively and with less
risk through the UN than it can by acting alone. Examples
include containing the spread of weapons of mass
destruction; enforcing sanctions on pariah states such as
Iraq; protecting the environment (ozone depletion, acid
rain, climate change, deforestation); and combating
international crime, drug trafficking, and terrorism.

Engagement in the UN pays significant dividends to Americans
in the form of a safer, more prosperous world. The UN offers
a unique forum for advancing U.S. foreign policy objectives.
As a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council, the U.S.
plays a leading role in the UN's efforts to maintain
international peace, promote democracy, and defend human
rights. UN peacekeeping gives the U.S. a way to protect
American interests in circumstances where either acting
alone or doing nothing is unacceptable. UN mediation and
preventive diplomacy efforts can provide an internationally
acceptable setting in which nations can move away from rigid
negotiating positions and begin to seek solutions to their
problems.

The multilateral system also provides a powerful platform
for advancing U.S. values and ideals in such areas as human
rights, free trade, labor standards, and public health. UN
programs also try to meet humanitarian needs for those
disadvantaged by circumstances beyond their control. Private
charitable agencies rely on the multiple capacities of the
UN system to develop the infrastructure and political
climate required for the success of such programs. UN
activities such as UNICEF, the UN High Commissioner for
Refugees, and the World Food Program have made a remarkable
impact on the lives of those most at risk around the globe:
children, women, and refugees.

UN programs serve U.S. objectives by promoting free-market
reform in the developing world. Those countries purchase
more than one-third of the goods and services exported by
our nation. Supporting economic development gives the U.S.
more prosperous trading partners that are better able to
import U.S. goods and less likely to "export" their own
people to U.S. shores. To reduce global poverty, the UN
attempts to help developing nations meet basic human needs--
clean water, food, shelter, and health care--and other
development goals.

In today's interdependent world, there is a clear need for
multilateral bodies to set regulatory standards and
arbitrate differences among countries in areas such as food
product safety, air safety, telecommunications, and
copyrights. For example, the World Health Organization and
the Food and Agriculture Organization have set food product
safety and quality standards worldwide through a jointly
sponsored trade standardization program called "Codex
Alimentarius." There are many direct benefits to our
participation in the multilateral system. For example, a
large part of U.S. financial contributions to the UN is
returned to U.S. companies through sales of equipment,
supplies, and consulting services.

The U.S. cannot rely solely on bilateral relations to
advance U.S. foreign policy objectives but must take
advantage of its participation in the UN in order to
influence other governments' opinions and policies.
Moreover, every dollar that the U.S. contributes to UN
activities is matched by $3 to $10 given by others. This
advances U.S. interests while spreading the cost among other
nations.

It is important that the UN operate efficiently and
effectively. The U.S. seeks a UN that both gets back to
basics and is ready to meet the challenges of the 21st
century. U.S. efforts include:

Program oversight. Following up on creation of the Office of
Internal Oversight Services at UN Headquarters, the U.S. is
working to expand the inspector general concept to the UN's
major specialized agencies; Reducing bureaucracies.
Important progress has been made in streamlining the UN
personnel system and holding the line on budgets; Improving
management. The U.S. applauds the initiatives of Secretary
General Annan in consolidating programs and implementing a
more transparent and consultative approach to management;
Security Council reform. The U.S. supports permanent seats
on the Security Council for Japan and Germany and a modest
further enlargement of the Council to include permanent
seats for developing nations from Asia, Africa, and Latin
America; Improving responsiveness. The U.S. seeks a UN able
to respond to humanitarian crises more rapidly and
effectively; Scale of assessments. The U.S. is working for a
revision of the scale of assessments to make it better
reflect current global circumstances.

The U.S. has welcomed the further initiative undertaken by
Secretary General Annan in July 1997 in putting forward
specific reform proposals for member state consideration.
These proposals closely parallel recommendations that the
U.S. has made, and the U.S. is working for the adoption of
most of them as early as possible.

Security Council

Under the UN Charter, the Security Council has "primary
responsibility for the maintenance of international peace
and security," and all UN members "agree to accept and carry
out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with
the present Charter." Other organs of the UN make
recommendations to member governments. The Security Council,
however, has the power to make decisions which member
governments must carry out under the Charter. A
representative of each Security Council member must always
be present at UN Headquarters so that the Council can meet
at any time.

Decisions in the 15-member Security Council on all
substantive matters--for example, a decision calling for
direct measures related to the settlement of a
dispute--require the affirmative votes of nine members,
including the support of all five permanent members. A
negative vote--a veto--by a permanent member prevents
adoption of a proposal that has received the required number
of affirmative votes. Abstention is not regarded as a veto.

A state that is a member of the UN, but not of the Security
Council, may participate in Security Council discussions in
which the Council agrees that the country's interests are
particularly affected. In recent years, the Council has
interpreted this loosely, enabling many countries to take
part in its discussions. Nonmembers routinely are invited to
take part when they are parties to disputes being considered
by the Council.

Under Chapter Six of the Charter, "Pacific Settlement of
Disputes," the Security Council "may investigate any
dispute, or any situation which might lead to international
friction or give rise to a dispute." The Council may
"recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment"
if it determines that the situation might endanger
international peace and security. These recommendations are
not binding on UN members.

Under Chapter Seven, the Council has broader power to decide
what measures are to be taken in situations involving
"threats to the peace, breaches of the peace, or acts of
aggression." In such situations, the Council is not limited
to recommendations but may take action, including the use of
armed force "to maintain or restore international peace and
security." This was the basis for UN armed action in Korea
in 1950 and the use of coalition forces in Iraq and Kuwait
in 1991. Decisions taken under Chapter Seven, such as
economic sanctions, are binding on UN members.

MAINTAINING THE PEACE

The UN's role in international collective security is
defined by the UN Charter, which gives the Security Council
the power to:

* Investigate any situation threatening international peace;
* Recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute;
* Call upon other member nations to completely or partially
interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal,
and radio communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and
* Enforce its decisions militarily, if necessary.

The United Nations has helped prevent many outbreaks of
international violence from growing into wider conflicts. It
has opened the way to negotiated settlements through its
service as a center of debate and negotiation, as well as
through UN-sponsored fact-finding missions, mediators, and
truce observers. UN peacekeeping forces, comprised of troops
and equipment supplied by member nations, have usually been
able to limit or prevent conflict. Some conflicts, however,
have proven to be beyond the capacity of the UN to
influence. Key to the success of UN peacekeeping efforts is
the willingness of the parties to a conflict to come to
terms peacefully through a viable political process.

UN peacekeeping initiatives have ranged from small,
diplomatic or political delegations to large mobilizations,
the most extensive of which was the 500,000-strong 1950-53
defense of South Korea against an attack by North Korea. In
the first few years following the end of the Cold War, the
number of peacekeeping operations increased dramatically.
The proliferation of operations reflected the view that, in
the post-Cold War era, the UN could play an important role
in defusing regional conflicts. Some of the peacekeeping
operations of the early 1990s also saw an expansion of the
traditional peacekeeping mandate to include such
responsibilities as supervising elections, monitoring human
rights, training police, and overseeing civil
administration.

Facing increasing demands on peacekeeping resources, the UN
and member nations had to make difficult choices. The
Clinton Administration in 1994 responded to the challenges
posed by the growing number and complexity of UN
peacekeeping operations by implementing a policy framework
suited to the new environment. The new policy involved six
major areas of reform:

* Improving how the U.S. decides which peace operations to
support and whether U.S. troops should take part;
* Reducing both U.S. and overall costs for UN peace
operations;
* Reaffirming longstanding U.S. policy on command and
control of American military forces in UN operations;
* Reforming UN management of those operations;
* Improving the manner by which the U.S. funds and manages
peace operations; and
* Improving the standard of consultations between the U.S.
executive branch and Congress on peace operations.

From 1995 to mid-1999 there was a sharp decline in the
number of UN peacekeepers in the field--from a high of
around 70,000 to 12,000. The assumption by the NATO-led
Implementation Force (IFOR) of major peacekeeping
responsibilities in the former Yugoslavia (and the resultant
termination of UNPROFOR's mandate) accounted for much of the
decrease. Other factors included the close-out of UN
operations in Mozambique in January 1995, Somalia in March
1995, El Salvador in April 1995, and Rwanda in March 1996.
With the U.S. and the UN taking a much harder look at
proposed peacekeeping operations, the only major new UN
mission set up in this period outside the former Yugoslavia
was the UNAVEM III operation in Angola.

Beginning in June 1999, new missions in Kosovo and East
Timor and expanded missions in Sierra Leone and the Congo
dramatically increased both the costs and personnel levels
of UN peacekeeping operations. They also added a new level
of complexity to peacekeeping efforts, with a greater
emphasis on civilian administration in East Timor and
Kosovo. From July 1999 to March 2000, overall UN
peacekeeping personnel levels increased by 17,000, with even
more personnel authorized but not deployed.

As of March 31, 2000, there were 765 U.S. personnel (0
troops, 730 civilian police, and 35 observers) in worldwide
UN peace operations, accounting for 2.6% of total UN
peacekeepers. As commander in chief, the President of the
United States never gives up command authority over U.S.
troops. When large numbers of U.S. troops are involved and
when the risk of combat is high, operational control of U.S.
forces will remain in American hands, or in the hands of a
trusted military ally such as a NATO member. But the
President must retain the flexibility, which has served the
U.S. well throughout its history, to allow temporary foreign
operational control of U.S. troops when it serves U.S.
interests, just as it has often served U.S. interests to
have foreign forces under U.S. operational control.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is made up of all 188 UN members, minus
Yugoslavia, which was suspended in 1992. The Assembly meets
in regular session once a year under a president elected
from among the representatives. The regular session usually
begins on the third Tuesday in September and ends in
mid-December. Special sessions can be convened at the
request of the Security Council, of a majority of UN
members, or, if the majority concurs, of a single member. A
special session was held in October 1995 at the head of
government level to commemorate the UN's 50th anniversary.

Voting in the General Assembly on important
questions--recommendations on peace and security; election
of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion
of members; budgetary matters--is by a two-thirds majority
of those present and voting. Other questions are decided by
majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from
approval of budgetary matters, including adoption of a scale
of assessment, Assembly resolutions are not binding on the
members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any
matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace
and security under Security Council consideration.

As the only UN organ in which all members are represented,
the Assembly serves as a forum for members to launch
initiatives on international questions of peace, economic
progress, and human rights. It can initiate studies; make
recommendations; develop and codify international law;
promote human rights; and further international economic,
social, cultural, and educational programs. The Assembly may
take action on maintaining international peace if the
Security Council is unable, usually due to disagreement
among the permanent members, to exercise its primary
responsibility. The "Uniting for Peace" resolutions, adopted
in 1950, empower the Assembly to convene in emergency
special session to recommend collective measures, including
the use of armed force, in the case of a breach of the peace
or act of aggression. Two-thirds of the members must approve
any such recommendation. Emergency special sessions under
this procedure have been held on nine occasions. The most
recent, in 1982, considered the situation in the occupied
Arab territories following Israel's unilateral extension of
its laws, jurisdiction, and administration to the Golan
Heights.

During the 1980s, the Assembly became a forum for the
North-South dialogue--the discussion of issues between
industrialized nations and developing countries. These
issues came to the fore because of the phenomenal growth and
changing makeup of the UN membership. In 1945, the UN had 51
members. It now has 188, of which more than two-thirds are
developing countries. Because of their numbers, developing
countries are often able to determine the agenda of the
Assembly, the character of its debates, and the nature of
its decisions. For many developing countries, the UN is the
source of much of their diplomatic influence and the
principal outlet for their foreign relations initiatives.

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General
Assembly in promoting international economic and social
cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, 18 of
whom are elected each year by the General Assembly for a
3-year term. The U.S. has been a member since the UN was
founded. ECOSOC meets once a year. The president is elected
for a 1-year term. Voting is by simple majority.

Through much of its history, ECOSOC has served primarily as
a discussion vehicle for economic and social issues. ECOSOC
had little authority to force action and a number of member
states were concerned that its utility was only marginal.
However, beginning in 1992, the U.S. and other nations began
an effort to make ECOSOC more relevant by strengthening its
policy responsibilities in economic, social, and related
fields, particularly in furthering development objectives.
The resulting reform made ECOSOC the oversight and
policy-setting body for UN operational development
activities and established smaller executive boards for the
UN Development Program (UNDP), UN Population Fund (UNFPA),
and UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) which would provide those
agencies with operating guidance and promote more effective
management. The reform also gave ECOSOC a strong hand in
ensuring that UN agencies coordinated their work on issues
of common interest, such as narcotics control, human rights,
the alleviation of poverty, and the prevention of HIV/AIDS.

One positive impact of this reform was the manner in which
the UN development system began to respond more coherently
and efficiently to humanitarian crises around the world.
Secretary General Annan's recent reform initiatives have
attached considerable importance to further strengthening
coordination among relief agencies.

Another example was the ECOSOC decision in 1994 to authorize
the creation of a new joint and co-sponsored UN program on
HIV/AIDS. This program will bring together the existing
AIDS-related resources and expertise of the World Health
Organization, UNICEF, UNDP, UNFPA, UNESCO, and the World
Bank into one consolidated global program, eliminating
duplication of effort and enhancing the ability of member
states to cope with the AIDS pandemic. It began operating in
January 1996.

Trusteeship Council

The UN trusteeship system was established to help ensure
that non-self-governing territories were administered in the
best interests of the inhabitants and of international peace
and security. Those numerous territories--most of them
former mandates of the League of Nations or territories
taken from enemy states at the end of World War II--have all
now attained self-government or independence, either as
separate nations or by joining neighboring independent
countries. The last, Palau, became a member of the UN in
December 1994. The Trusteeship Council has suspended its
activities.

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial
organ of the UN. Established in 1945, its main functions are
to decide cases submitted to it by states and to give
advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by the
General Assembly or Security Council, or by such specialized
agencies as may be authorized to do so by the General
Assembly in accordance with the UN Charter.

The seat of the Court is in The Hague, Netherlands. It is
composed of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and
the Security Council from a list of persons nominated by the
national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
Judges serve for 9 years and may be re-elected. No two may
be nationals of the same country. One-third of the Court is
elected every 3 years. An American has always been a member
of the Court. Questions before the Court are decided by a
majority of judges present.

Only states may be parties in cases before the International
Court of Justice. This does not preclude private interests
from being the subject of proceedings if one state brings
the case against another. While jurisdiction of the Court is
based on the consent of the parties, any judgments reached
are binding. The Security Council can be called upon by a
party to determine measures to be taken to enforce a
judgment if the other party fails to perform its
obligations. The U.S. accepted the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction in 1946 but withdrew its acceptance following
the Court's decision in a 1986 case involving activities in
Nicaragua. Examples of cases include:

* A complaint by the U.S. in 1980 that Iran was detaining
American diplomats in Tehran in violation of international
law;
* A dispute between Tunisia and Libya over the delimitation
of the continental shelf between them; and
* A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary
dividing the U.S. and Canada in the Gulf of Maine area.

Secretariat

The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General, assisted
by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It
provides studies, information, and facilities needed by UN
bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as
directed by the Security Council, the General Assembly, the
Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The
Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of
the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and
integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting
on a wide geographical basis.

The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or
receive instructions from any authority other than the UN.
Each UN member is enjoined to respect the international
character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its
staff. The Secretary General alone is responsible for staff
selection.

The Secretary General's duties include helping resolve
international disputes, administering peacekeeping
operations, organizing international conferences, gathering
information on the implementation of Security Council
decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding
various initiatives. Key Secretariat offices in this area
include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian
Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The
Secretary General may bring to the attention of the Security
Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten
international peace and security.

THE UN FAMILY

In addition to the principal UN organs, the UN family
includes nearly 30 major programs or agencies. Some were in
existence before the UN was created and are related to it by
agreement. Others were established by the General Assembly.
Each provides expertise in a specific area. UN Children's
Fund (UNICEF)

Headquartered in New York City, UNICEF provides long-term
humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and
mothers in developing countries. A voluntarily funded
agency, UNICEF relies on contributions from governments and
private donors. Its programs emphasize developing
community-level services to promote the health and
well-being of children. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1965.

UN Development Program (UNDP)

Headquartered in New York City, UNDP has a U.S.
administrator and is the largest multilateral source of
grant technical assistance in the world. Voluntarily funded,
it provides expert advice, training, and limited equipment
to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on
assistance to the poorest countries.

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

Headquartered in Vienna, Austria, the IAEA seeks to promote
the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use
for military purposes. The IAEA's programs encourage the
development of the peaceful application of nuclear
technology, provide international safeguards against its
misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in
its use. IAEA expanded its nuclear safety efforts in
response to the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.

World Food Program (WFP)

Headquartered in Rome, Italy, the WFP distributes food
commodities to support development projects, to long-term
refugees and displaced persons, and as emergency food
assistance in situations of natural and manmade disasters.
Development projects, traditionally two-thirds of WFP
programs, now constitute about 40%, as emergency and
protracted refugee situations result in increasing demands
for WFP programs and resources. WFP operates exclusively on
contributions of commodities and cash donated by
governments.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Headquartered in Rome, Italy, FAO programs seek to raise
levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve the
production, processing, marketing, and distribution of food
and agricultural products; to promote rural development;
and, by these means, to eliminate hunger. FAO's efforts to
eliminate the Mediterranean fruit fly from the Caribbean
Basin benefit the U.S. citrus industry. Likewise, U.S.
cattleraisers have a direct stake in FAO efforts to
eliminate a tick found in the Caribbean that carries a
threatening cattle disease.

World Health Organization (WHO)

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, WHO acts as a
coordinating authority on international public health. After
years of fighting smallpox, WHO declared in 1979 that the
disease had been eradicated. It is nearing success in
developing vaccines against malaria and schistosomiasis and
aims to eradicate polio within the next few years.

Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, UNHCR protects and
supports refugees at the request of a government or the UN
and assists in their return or resettlement. UNHCR was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1954 and 1982.

Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights

At the urging of the U.S. and other nations, the General
Assembly established the Office of High Commissioner for
Human Rights in 1993. The High Commissioner's mandate
includes promotion and protection of human rights worldwide
through direct contact with individual governments and the
provision of technical assistance where appropriate. Holding
the rank of Under Secretary General, the High Commissioner
coordinates human rights activities throughout the UN system
and supervises the UN Center for Human Rights in Geneva,
Switzerland.

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

Headquartered in Montreal, Canada, ICAO develops the
principles and techniques of international air navigation
and fosters the planning and development of international
air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth. The ICAO
Council adopts standards and recommended practices
concerning air navigation, prevention of unlawful
interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures
for international civil aviation. Standards developed by
ICAO directly affect U.S. commercial air travel and benefit
U.S. industries, which supply the greatest share of aircraft
and equipment worldwide.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, ITU promotes the
improvement of telecommunication services worldwide. As the
largest producer and supplier of telecommunications
equipment, the U.S. benefits from the technical assistance
extended to developing countries from agencies such as the
ITU.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

Headquartered in London, U.K., IMO promotes cooperation
among governments and the shipping industry to improve
maritime safety and to prevent marine pollution. Recent U.S.
initiatives at IMO have included amendments to the Safety of
Life at Sea Convention, which upgraded fire protection
standards on passenger ships and amendments to the
Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution, which
required double hulls on all tankers. U.S. maritime
interests benefit directly from IMO work on standardization,
safety, and ocean antipollution programs.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, WMO provides weather
information to a wide range of Americans, including farmers,
mariners, aviators, and travelers. Its work has significant
economic and social impact on the U.S.

International Labor Organization (ILO)

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, ILO seeks to
strengthen worker rights, improve working and living
conditions, create employment, and provide information and
training opportunities. ILO programs include the
occupational safety and health hazard alert system and the
labor standards and human rights programs.

UN Environment Program (UNEP)

Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya, UNEP coordinates UN
environmental activities, assisting developing countries in
implementing environmentally sound policies. UNEP has
developed guidelines and treaties on issues such as the
international transport of potentially harmful chemicals,
transboundary air pollution, and contamination of
international waterways.

ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT

The 1945 UN Charter envisaged a system of regulation that
would ensure "the least diversion for armaments of the
world's human and economic resources." The advent of nuclear
weapons came only weeks after the signing of the Charter and
provided immediate impetus to concepts of arms limitation
and disarmament. In fact, the first resolution of the first
meeting of the General Assembly (January 24, 1946) was
entitled "The Establishment of a Commission to Deal with the
Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy" and
called upon the commission to make specific proposals for
"the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons
and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass
destruction."

The UN has established several forums to address
multilateral disarmament issues. The principal ones are the
First Committee of the UN General Assembly and the UN
Disarmament Commission. Items on the agenda include
consideration of the possible merits of a nuclear test ban,
outerspace arms control, efforts to ban chemical weapons,
nuclear and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free
zones, reduction of military budgets, and measures to
strengthen international security.

The Conference on Disarmament is the sole forum established
by the international community for the negotiation of
multilateral arms control and disarmament agreements. It has
38 members representing all areas of the world, including
the five major nuclear-weapon states--China, France, Russia,
U.K., and U.S. While the conference is not formally a UN
organization, it is linked to the UN through a personal
representative of the Secretary General; this representative
serves as the secretary general of the conference.
Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly often request
the conference to consider specific disarmament matters. In
turn, the conference annually reports on its activities to
the General Assembly.

HUMAN RIGHTS

The pursuit of human rights was one of the central reasons
for creating the United Nations. World War II atrocities and
genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization
must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An
early objective was creating a legal framework for
considering and acting on complaints about human rights
violations.

The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote
"universal respect for, and observance of, human rights" and
to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally
binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a
common standard of achievement for all. The General Assembly
regularly takes up human rights issues. The UN Human Rights
Commission (UNHRC), under ECOSOC, is the primary UN body
charged with promoting human rights, primarily through
investigations and offers of technical assistance. As
discussed, the High Commissioner for Human Rights is the
official principally responsible for all UN human rights
activities (see, under "The UN Family," the section on
"Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights").

The U.S. considers the United Nations to be a first line of
defense of the principles enshrined in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. It also is a means by which
those principles can be applied more broadly around the
world. A case in point is support by the United Nations for
countries in transition to democracy. Technical assistance
in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial
structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights
officials, and transforming armed movements into political
parties have contributed significantly to democratization
worldwide.

The United Nations also is a forum in which to support the
right of women to participate fully in the political,
economic, and social life of their countries.

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES

The member countries of the UN and its specialized
agencies--the "shareholders" of the system--give guidance
and make decisions on substantive and administrative issues
in regular meetings held throughout each year. Governing
bodies made up of member states include not only the General
Assembly, ECOSOC, and the Security Council, but also
counterpart bodies dealing with the governance of all other
UN system agencies. For example, the World Health Assembly
and the Executive Board oversee the work of WHO. Each year,
the U.S. Department of State accredits U.S. delegations to
more than 600 meetings of governing bodies.

When an issue is considered particularly important, the
General Assembly may convene an international conference to
focus global attention and build a consensus for
consolidated action. High-level U.S. delegations use these
opportunities to promote U.S. policy viewpoints and develop
international agreements on future activities. Recent
examples include:

* The UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992, led to the creation
of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development to advance
the conclusions reached in Agenda 21, the final text of
agreements negotiated by governments at UNCED;

* The World Conference on Population and Development, held
in Cairo, Egypt, in September 1994, approved a program of
action to address the critical challenges and
interrelationships between population and sustainable
development over the next 20 years;

* The World Summit on Trade Efficiency, held in October 1994
in Columbus, Ohio, cosponsored by UN Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD), the city of Columbus, and
private-sector business, focused on the use of modern
information technology to expand international trade;

* The World Summit for Social Development, held in March
1995 in Copenhagen, Denmark, underscored national
responsibility for sustainable development and secured
high-level commitment to plans that invest in basic
education, health care, and economic opportunity for all,
including women and girls;

* The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing,
China, in September 1995, sought to accelerate
implementation of the historic agreements reached at the
Third World Conference held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1985; and

* The Second UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat
II), convened in June 1996 in Istanbul, Turkey, considered
the challenges of human settlement development and
management in the 21st century.

FINANCING

The UN system is financed in two ways: assessed and
voluntary contributions from member states. The regular
2-year budgets of the UN and its specialized agencies are
funded by assessments. In the case of the UN, the General
Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the
assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the
relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by
national income statistics, although there are some
variations.

The Assembly has established the principle that no member
should pay more than 25% of the regular budget. The U.S. is
the only nation affected by this limitation. If the standard
criterion of "capacity to pay" were applied in the same
manner to the U.S. as to other major industrial powers, the
U.S. would be assessed at about 28%.

Under the scale of assessments adopted in 1997 to cover
1998-2000, other major contributors to the regular UN budget
for 2000 are Japan (20.53%), Germany (9.86%), France
(6.54%), Italy (5.44%), the U.K. (5.09%), Canada (2.73%) and
Spain (2.59%).

Special UN programs not included in the regular budget--such
as UNICEF and WFP--are financed by voluntary contributions
from member governments. In 1998, the U.S. contributions for
UN humanitarian programs was approximately $1.5 billion.
Much of that was in the form of agricultural commodities
donated for afflicted populations rather than in cash.

UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a
formula derived from the regular scale, but including a
surcharge for the five permanent members of the Security
Council (who must approve all peacekeeping operations); this
surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping
assessment rates for less developed countries. Owing to
domestic legislation that went into effect October 1, 1995,
the U.S. recognizes 25% as its maximum rate payable for
peacekeeping.

Better choices about peacekeeping arrangements and the
decline in the number of UN peacekeepers in the field have
led to a reduction in the cost of peacekeeping over the past
year. Total UN peacekeeping expenses peaked between 1994 and
1995; at the end of 1995 the total cost was just over $3.5
billion. Total UN peacekeeping costs for FY 1999, including
operations funded from the UN regular budget as well as the
peacekeeping budget, were on the order of $900 million. This
reduction in costs comes, however, at a time of financial
crisis in the UN, resulting from the failure of member
states, including the United States, to pay assessments in
full or on time. The Clinton Administration has proposed
addressing U.S. arrears to peacekeeping, the regular budget,
and the specialized agencies through a several-year payment
plan. Legislation on arrears is under consideration in the
Congress.

U.S. REPRESENTATION

The U.S. Permanent Mission to the UN in New York is headed
by the U.S. Representative to the UN, with the rank of
Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. The current
U.S. Permanent Representative also is a member of the
President's Cabinet. The mission serves as the channel of
communication for the U.S. Government with the UN organs,
agencies, and commissions at the UN Headquarters and with
the other permanent missions accredited to the UN and the
nonmember observer missions. The U.S. mission has a
professional staff made up largely of career Foreign Service
officers, including specialists in political, economic,
social, financial, legal, and military issues.

The U.S. also maintains missions to international
organizations in Geneva, Rome, Vienna, Nairobi, Montreal,
London, and Paris. These missions report to the Department
of State and receive guidance on questions of policy from
the President, through the Secretary of State. Relations
with the UN and its family of agencies are coordinated by
the Assistant Secretary of State for International
Organization Affairs.

The U.S. Mission to the United Nations is located at 799
United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 (tel.
212-415-4000).

Preamble to Charter of the United Nations

We the Peoples of the United Nations Determined To Save
succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice
in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and To
Reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity
and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men
and women of nations large and small, and To Establish
conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations arising from treaties and other sources of
international law can be maintained, and To Promote social
progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, And
for these ends To Practice tolerance and live together in
peace with one another as good neighbors, and To Unite our
strength to maintain international peace and security, and
To Ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the
institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used,
save in the common interest, and To Employ international
machinery for the promotion of the economic and social
advancement of all peoples, Have resolved to combine our
efforts to accomplish these aims. Accordingly, our
respective Governments, through representatives assembled in
the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full
powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the
present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby
establish an international organization to be known as the
United Nations.

188 Members of the United Nations [1]
Afghanistan (1946)
Albania (1955)
Algeria (1962)
Andorra (1993)
Angola (1976)
Antigua and Barbuda (1981)
Argentina
Armenia (1992)
Australia
Austria (1955)
Azerbaijan (1992)
Bahamas (1973)
Bahrain (1971)
Bangladesh (1974)
Barbados (1966)
Belarus (formerly Byelorussian SSR)
Belgium
Belize (1981)
Benin (1960)
Bhutan (1971)
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992)
Botswana (1966)
Brazil
Brunei (1984)
Bulgaria (1955)
Burkina Faso (1960)
Burma (1948)
Burundi (1962)
Cambodia (1955)
Cameroon (1960)
Canada
Cape Verde (1975)
Central African Republic (1960)
Chad (1960)
Chile
China [2]
Colombia
Comoros (1975)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the (1960)
Congo, Republic of the (1960)
Costa Rica
Cote d'Ivoire (1960)
Croatia (1992)
Cuba
Cyprus (1960)
Czech Republic (1993)
Denmark
Djibouti (1977)
Dominica (1978)
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea (1968)
Eritrea (1993)
Estonia (1991)
Ethiopia
Fiji (1970)
Finland (1955)
France
Gabon (1960)
Gambia (1965)
Georgia (1992)
Germany (1973)
Ghana (1957)
Greece
Grenada (1974)
Guatemala
Guinea (1958)
Guinea-Bissau (1974)
Guyana (1966)
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary (1955)
Iceland (1946)
India
Indonesia (1950)
Iran
Iraq
Ireland (1955)
Israel (1949)
Italy (1955)
Jamaica (1962)
Japan (1956)
Jordan (1955)
Kazakhstan (1992)
Kenya (1963)
Kiribati (1999)
Korea, North (1991)
Korea, South (1991)
Kuwait (1963)
Kyrgyzstan (1992)
Laos (1955)
Latvia (1991)
Lebanon
Lesotho (1966)
Liberia
Libya (1955)
Liechtenstein (1990)
Lithuania (1991)
Luxembourg
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of (1993)
Madagascar (1960)
Malawi (1964)
Malaysia (1957)
Maldives (1965)
Mali (1960)
Malta (1964)
Marshall Islands (1991)
Mauritania (1961)
Mauritius (1968)
Mexico
Micronesia, Federated States of (1991)
Moldova (1992)
Monaco (1993)
Mongolia (1961)
Morocco (1956)
Mozambique (1975)
Namibia (1990)
Nauru (1999)
Nepal (1955)
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger (1960)
Nigeria (1960)
Norway
Oman (1971)
Pakistan (1947)
Palau (1994)
Panama
Papua New Guinea (1975)
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal (1955)
Qatar (1971)
Romania (1955)
Russia [3]
Rwanda (1962)
Saint Kitts and Nevis (1983)
Saint Lucia (1979)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (1980)
Samoa (1976)
San Marino (1992)
Sao Tome and Principe (1975)
Saudi Arabia
Senegal (1960)
Seychelles (1976)
Sierra Leone (1961)
Singapore (1965)
Slovakia (1993)
Slovenia (1992)
Solomon Islands (1978)
Somalia (1960)
South Africa
Spain (1955)
Sri Lanka (1955)
Sudan (1956)
Suriname (1975)
Swaziland (1968)
Sweden (1946)
Syria
Tajikistan (1992)
Tanzania (1961)
Thailand (1946)
Togo (1960)
Tonga (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago (1962)
Tunisia (1956)
Turkey
Turkmenistan (1992)
Tuvalu (expected to become the 189th member in September 2000)
Uganda (1962)
Ukraine (formerly Ukrainian SSR)
United Arab Emirates (1971)
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay
Uzbekistan (1992)
Vanuatu (1981)
Venezuela
Vietnam (1977)
Yemen (1947)
Yugoslavia [4]
Zambia (1964)
Zimbabwe (1980)

[1] Year in parentheses indicates date of admission;
countries with no date were original members in 1945.

[2] By Resolution 2758 (XXVI) of Oct. 25, 1971, the General
Assembly decided "to restore all its rights to the People's
Republic of China and to recognize the representative of its
Government as the only legitimate representative of China to
the United Nations."

[3] In December 1991, Russia assumed the permanent Security
Council seat previously held by the U.S.S.R.

[4] Yugoslavia was suspended from participation in the
General Assembly in 1992, but retains UN membership.

UN Secretaries General

Trygve Lie (Norway)--Feb. 1, 1946-April 10, 1953
Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden)--April 10, 1953-Sept. 8, 1961
U Thant (Burma)--Nov. 3, 1961-Dec. 31, 1971 (initially
appointed acting Secretary General; formally appointed Nov. 30, 1962)
Kurt Waldheim (Austria)--Jan. 1, 1972-Dec. 31, 1981
Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru)--Jan. 1, 1982-Dec. 31, 1991
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt)--Jan. 1, 1992-Dec. 31, 1996
Kofi Annan (Ghana)--Jan. 1, 1997-present

U.S. Representatives to the United Nations

Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.--March 1946-June 1946
Herschel V. Johnson (acting--June 1946-Jan. 1947
Warren R. Austin--Jan. 1947-Jan. 1953
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.-- Jan. 1953-Sept. 1960
James J. Wadsworth--September 1960-Jan. 1961
Adlai E. Stevenson--Jan. 1961-July 1965
Arthur J. Goldberg--July 1965-June 1968
George W. Ball--June 1968-Sept. 1968
James Russell Wiggins--Oct. 1968-Jan. 1969
Charles W. Yost--Jan. 1969-Feb. 1971
George Bush--Feb. 1971-Jan. 1973
John P. Scali--Feb. 1973-June 1975
Daniel P. Moynihan--June 1975-Feb. 1976
William W. Scranton--March 1976-Jan. 1977
Andrew Young--Jan. 1977-April 1979
Donald McHenry--April 1979-Jan. 1981
Jeane J. Kirkpatrick--Feb. 1981-April 1985
Vernon Walters--May 1985-Jan. 1989
Thomas R. Pickering--March 1989-May 1992
Edward J. Perkins--May 1992-Jan. 1993
Madeleine K. Albright--Feb. 1993-Jan. 1997
Bill Richardson--Feb. 1997-Sept 1998
A. Peter Burleigh (acting)--Sept 1998-Aug 1999
Richard Holbrooke--Aug 1999-present

ELECTRONIC INFORMATION

Department of State Foreign Affairs Network. Available on
the Internet, DOSFAN provides timely, global access to
official U.S. foreign policy information. Updated daily,
DOSFAN includes Background Notes; daily press briefings;
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http://www.state.gov.

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Department of Commerce, the NTDB contains a wealth of
trade-related information. It is available on the Internet
(http://www.stat-usa.gov) and on CD-ROM. Call the NTDB
Help-Line at (202) 482-1986 for more information.

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