This volume has been prepared to meet a twofold need. An adequate presentation of the International Language has become an imperative necessity. Such presentation, including full and accurate grammatical explanations, suitably graded reading lessons, and similarly graded material for translation from English, has not heretofore been accessible within the compass of a single volume, or in fact within the compass of any two or three volumes. The combination of grammar and reader here offered is therefore unique. It is to furnish not merely an introduction to Esperanto, or a superficial acquaintance with it, but a genuine understanding of the language and mastery of its use without recourse to additional textbooks, readers, etc. In other words, this one volume affords as complete a knowledge of Esperanto as several years' study of a grammar and various readers will accomplish for any national language.

Inflection, word-formation and syntax are presented clearly and concisely, yet with a degree of completeness and in a systematic order that constitute a new feature. Other points worthy of note are the following:

The reasons for syntactical usages are given, instead of mere statements that such usages exist. For example, clauses of purpose and of result are really explained, instead of being dismissed with the unsatisfactory remark that "the imperative follows 'por ke,'" or the "use of 'tiel ....ke' and 'tia ... ke' must be distinguished from that of 'tiel ... kiel' and 'tia ... kia,'" etc., with but little intimation of when and why "por ke", "tiel ... ke" and "tia ... ke" are likely to occur.

Affixes are not mentioned until some familiarity with the general character of the language is assured, as well as the possession of a fair vocabulary. They are introduced gradually, with adequate explanation and illustration. Of importance in connection with word-formation is an element distinctly new--the explanation and classification of compound words. Such words, like affixes, are withheld until the use of simple words is familiar.
Another new feature is the gradual introduction of correlative words in their logical order, and in their proper grammatical categories, before they are called "correlatives," or tabulated. The tabulation finally presented is a real classification, with regard to the meaning and grammatical character of the words, not merely an arbitrary alphabetical arrangement. The use of primary adverbs precedes the explanation of adverb derivation; prepositions, especially "de", "da", "je", etc., receive careful attention, also the verb system, and the differentiation of words whose English equivalents are ambiguous.

A general characteristic of obvious advantage is that almost without exception new forms and constructions are illustrated by means of words or roots already familiar. Likewise, the new words or roots of each lesson recur at least once in the next lesson, and usually in some lesson thereafter as well. Each reading exercise gives not only a thorough application of the grammatical principles of the lesson, but a review of those in the preceding lesson, and no use is made of words or constructions not yet explained. The comparative ease of the language, and the lack of necessity for reciting paradigms, permit the reading exercises to be long enough for the student to feel that he has really mastered something. These exercises are further unique, in that each after the fifth is a coherent narrative, and nearly every one is a story of genuine interest in itself. These stories, if bound separately, would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second year work in national languages. (For list of titles, see Table of Contents.)

The second element of the twofold need which this volume meets is the necessity for a presentation of Esperanto, not as a thing apart, but in that form which will make it most serviceable as an introduction to national tongues. A stepping-stone to both ancient and modern languages, Esperanto may render invaluable aid, and pave the way for surmounting the many difficulties confronting both student and teacher. Through Esperanto, the labor in the acquirement of these languages may be reduced in the same proportion in which the pleasure and thoroughness of such acquirement are increased. For this reason, the grammatical constructions of Esperanto are here explained as consistently as possible in accordance with the usage of national languages, especially those in the school curriculum, and precise names are assigned to them. Such matters as "contrary to fact conditions", "indirect quotations", "clauses of purpose" and "of result", "accusatives of time" and "measure", "expressions of separation", "reference", etc., thus become familiar to the student, long before he meets them in the more difficult garb of a national tongue, whose exceptions seem to outnumber its rules, and whose idioms prove more puzzling than its exceptions, unless approached by the smooth and gradual ascent of the International Language, Esperanto.
Ivy Kellerman.
Washington, D. C.,
August 3, 1910.

I.) Alphabet.--Vowels.--Consonants.--Names of the Letters.-- Diphthongs.--Combinations of Consonants.--Syllables.--Accent.

II.) Nouns.--The Article.--Adjectives.--Attributive Adjectives.-- Present Tense of the Verb

III.) The Plural Number.--Predicate Adjective and Noun

IV.) Transitive Verbs.--The Accusative Case.--The Conjunction "Kaj".--The Negative "Ne".

V.) The Complementary Infinitive.--Interrogation.--The Conjunction "Nek".

VI.) Personal Pronouns.--Agreement with Pronouns.--Conjugation of the Verb.

VII.) The Past Tense.--Prepositions.--Accusative Case of Personal Pronouns.

VIII.) Reflexive Pronouns.--Reflexive Verbs.

IX.) Limitation of the Third Personal Pronoun.-Possessive Adjectives.--Pronominal Use of Possessive Adjectives.--"La Kato kaj la Pasero".

X.) The Accusative of Direction.--The Article for the Possessive Adjective.--Apposition.--"La Arabo kaj la Kamelo".

XI.) Possessive Case of Nouns.--Impersonal Verbs.--Verbs Preceding their Subjects.--Coordinating Conjunctions.--"La Arabo en la Dezerto".

XII.) Indirect Statements.--The Indefinite Personal Pronoun "Oni".--The Future Tense.--"La Ventoflago".

XIII.) The Demonstrative "Pronoun Tiu".--Tenses in Indirect Quotations.--Formation of Feminine Nouns.--"En la Parko".

XIV.) The Demonstrative Pronoun "Ĉi tiu".--Possessive Form of the Demonstrative Pronoun.--The Suffix "-Il-".--The Expression of Means or Instrumentality.--"La Manĝo".

XV.) The Demonstrative Adjective.--Adverbs Defined and Classified.--Formation of Opposites.--"La Ruza Juna Viro".

XVI.) The Demonstrative Adverb of Place.--Accompaniment.--The Adverb "For".--The Meaning of "Povi".--"Malamikoj en la Dezerto".

XVII.) The Demonstrative Temporal Adverb.--Comparison of Adjectives.--Manner and Characteristic.--"Diri", "Paroli" and "Rakonti".--"Frederiko Granda kaj la Juna Servisto".

XVIII.) The Demonstrative Adverb of Motive or Reason.--Derivation of Adverbs.--Comparison of Words Expressing Quantity.-- Comparisons Containing "Ol".--Causal Clauses.--"Pri la Sezonoj".

XIX.) "Ju" and "Des" in Comparisons.--The Preposition "Inter".-- The Preposition "Pro".--Prepositions with Adverbs and Other Prepositions.--"La Aŭtuno kaj la Vintro".

XX.) The Demonstrative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--Prepositions Expressing Time-Relations.--"En Septembro".

XXI.) The Accusative of Time.--Adverbs and the Accusative of Time.--The Preposition "Por".--"La Sezonoj kaj la Mondo".

XXII.) Clauses Expressing Duration of Time.--Clauses Expressing Anticipation.--The Infinitive with "Anstataŭ", "Por", "Antaŭ ol".--The Expression of a Part of the Whole.-- "Diogeno kaj Aleksandro Granda".

XXIII.) Adverbs Expressing a Part of the Whole.--The Demonstrative Adverb of Quantity.--Result Clauses.--"En la Butiko".

XXIV.) The Interrogative Pronoun.--The Present Active Participle.--Compound Tenses.--The Progressive Present Tense.--The Suffix "-Ej-".--"En Nia Domo".

XXV.) The Interrogative Adjective.--The Imperfect Tense.-- Salutations and Exclamations.--Word Formation.--"Koni" and "Scii".--"La Nepo Vizitas la Avinon".

XXVI.) The Interrogative Adverb of Place.--The Past Active Participle.--Adverb Derivation from Prepositions.--Adverbs Expressing Direction of Motion.--The Suffix "-Eg-".--"La Pluvego".

XXVII.) The Interrogative Temporal Adverb.--The Perfect Tense.--The Preposition "Ĉe".--The Suffix "-Ar-".--"Tempo" and "Fojo".-- The Orthography of Proper Names.--"Roberto Bruce kaj la Araneo".

XXVIII.) The Interrogative Adverb of Motive or Reason.-- The Infinitive as Subject.--Present Action with Past Inception.--The Suffix "-Ul-".--"Loĝi" and "Vivi".--"Pri la Avo kaj la Avino".

XXIX.) The Interrogative Adverb of Manner and Degree.--The Pluperfect Tense.--Cardinal Numbers.--The Accusative of Measure.--"Nia Familio".

XXX.) The Interrogative Adverb of Quantity.--Modifiers of Impersonally Used Verbs.--Formation of Cardinal Numerals.--The Suffix "-An-".--"Leciono Pri Aritmetiko".

XXXI.) The Relative Pronoun.--The Future PerfectTense.--Ordinal Numerals.--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Libro".

XXXII.) "Kia" as a Relative Adjective.--"Kie" as a Relative Adverb.--The Future Active Participle.--The Periphrastic Future Tenses.--The Suffix "-Ind-".--"Alfredo Granda kaj la Kukoj".

XXXIII.) "Kiam" as a Relative Adverb.--"Kiel" as a Relative Adverb.--Numeral Nouns and Adverbs.--Word Derivation from Prepositions.--"La Invito".

XXXIV.) Prepositions as Prefixes.--The Suffix "-Ebl-".--Expression of the Highest Degree Possible.--Titles and Terms of Address.--"Ĉe la Festo".

XXXV.) "Kiom" as a Relative Adverb.--The Present Passive Participle.--Fractions.--Descriptive Compounds.--"La Ĥinoj".

XXXVI.) The Present Passive Tense.--The Use of "De" to Express Agency.--The General Meaning of "De".--Word Derivation from Primary Adverbs.--The Suffix "-Ist-".--"Antikva Respubliko".

XXXVII.) The Distributive Pronoun.--The Preposition "Po".-- Dependent Compounds.--"La Ĉapelo sur la Stango".

XXXVIII.) The Distributive Adjective.--The Imperfect Passive Tense - Compound Tenses of Impersonal Verbs.--Reciprocal Expressions.--The Suffix "-Uj-".--"Vilhelmo Tell kaj la Pomo".

XXXIX.) The Distributive Adverb of Place.--The Future Passive Tense.--Possessive Compounds.--The Time of Day.--The Suffix "-Obl-".--"En la Stacidomo".

XL.) The Distributive Temporal Adverb.--The Distributive Adverb "Ĉial".--The Past Passive Participle.--The Perfect Passive Tense.--The Preposition "Laŭ".--The Suffi "-Em-".--"La Perdita Infano".

XLI.) The Distributive Adverb "Ĉiel".--The Distributive Adverb "Ĉiom".--The Pluperfect Passive Tense.--The Future Perfect Passive Tense.--The Expression of Material.--The Suffix "-Et-".--"La Donaco".

XLII.) The Future Passive Participle.--The Passive Periphrastic Future Tenses.--The Generic Article.--The Suffix "-Ec-".--"Sur la Vaporŝipo".

XLIII.) The Indefinite Pronoun.--Participial Nouns.--The Prefix "Ek-".--The Suffix "-Id-".--"La Nesto sur la Tendo".

XLIV.) The Indefinite Adjective.--The Indefinite Adverb of Place.-- Predicate Nominatives.--"La Ĉevalo kaj la Sonorilo".

XLV.) The Indefinite Temporal Adverb.--The Indefinite Adverb "Ial".--Causative Verbs.--Emphasis by Means of "Ja".-- "Ĉe la Malnova Ponto".

XLVI.) The Indefinite Adverb "Iel".--The Indefinite Adverb "Iom".-- The Suffix "-Ad-".--The Use of "Mem".--"Arĥimedo kaj la Kronoj".

XLVII.) The Negative Pronoun.--The Adverbial Participle.--The Prefix "Re-".--"La Filozofo Arĥimedo".

XLVIII.) The Negative Adjective.--The Negative Adverb of Place.--The Negative Temporal Adverb.--The Suffix "-Aĵ-".--The Adverb "Jen".--"Du Artkonkursoj".

XLIX.) The Negative Adverbs "Nenial", "Neniel", "Neniom".--The Suffix "-Iĝ-".--"La Krepusko".

L.) The Pronouns ending in "-O".--Correlative Words.--The Use of "Ajn".--The Suffix "-Ing-".--"La Gordia Ligaĵo".

LI.) The Pronoun "Ambaŭ".--Formations with "-Ig-" and "-Iĝ-".-- Factual Conditions.--"La Monaĥoj kaj la Azeno".

LII.) The Conditional Mood.--Compound Tenses of the Conditional Mood.--Less Vivid Conditions.--Independent Use of the Conditional Mood.--The Prefix "Dis-".--"Pri la Gravitado".

LIII.) Conditions Contrary to Fact.--The Verb "Devi".--The Preposition "Sen".--"La Filozofo Sokrato".

LIV.) Summary of Conditions.--Clauses of Imaginative Comparison.--The Use of "Al" to Express Reference.--The Suffix "-Estr-".--"La Ostracismo de Aristejdo".

LV.) The Imperative Mood.--Resolve and Exhortation.--Commands and Prohibitions.--Less Peremptory Uses of the Imperative.--The Use of "Moŝto".--"La Glavo de Damoklo".

LVI. The Imperative in Subordinate Clauses.--The Preposition "Je".--The Suffix "-Op-".--"La Marŝado de la Dekmil Grekoj".

LVII. Clauses Expressing Purpose.--Further Uses of the Accusative.--Synopsis of the Conjugation of the Verb.--The Suffix "-Um-".--"La Reirado de la Dekmilo".

LVIII. Permission and Possibility.--The Prefix "Ge-".--The Suffix "-Aĉ-".--Interjections.--"Aleksandro Granda".

LIX. The Position of Unemphatic Pronouns.--Some Intransitive Verbs.--The Suffix "-Er-".--The Prefixes "Bo-" and "Duon-".--Correspondence.--"Kelkaj Leteroj".

LX. Some Transitive Verbs.--Elision.--The Prefix "Eks-".--The Prefix "Pra-".--The Suffixes "-Ĉj-" and "-Nj-".--Weights and Measures.--The International Money System.--Abbreviations.-- "Pri La Kamero".

1.) The Esperanto alphabet contains the following letters: a, b, c, ĉ,d, e, f, g, ĝ, h, ĥ, i, j, ĵ, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, ŝ, t, u, ŭ, v, z.

2.) The vowels of the alphabet are pronounced as follows: "a" as in "far".
"e" as in "fiance", like "a" in "fate".

Footnote: This "long a" sound in English frequently ends with a vanish,--a brief terminal sound of "short i" which makes the vowel slightly diphthongal, as in "day", "aye". Such a vanish must not be given to any of the Esperanto vowels.]

"i" as in "machine". "o" as in "toll", "for". "u" as in "rude", "rural".

CONSONANTS.

3.) The consonants "b", "d", "f", "h", "k", "l", "m", "n", "p", "t", "v", "z", are pronounced as in English, and the remaining eleven as follows:

"c" like "ts" in "hats", "tsetse". -- "ĉ" like "ch" in "chin", "much". -- "g" like "g" in "go", "big". -- "ĝ" like "g" in "gem", "j" in "jar". -- "ĥ" is produced by expelling the breath forcibly, with the throat only partially open.

[Footnote: As in pronouncing German and Scotch "ch", Spanish "j", Irish "gh", Russian "x", Classical Greek Greek: "chi" etc. There are only a few words containing this consonant.]

"j" like "y" in "yes", "beyond". -- "ĵ" like "z" in "azure", "s" in "visual". -- "r" is slightly trilled or rolled. -- "s" like "s" in "see", "basis". -- "ŝ" like "sh" in "shine", "rash", "ch" in machine". -- "ŭ" like "w" or consonantal "u". See Diphthongs, 5.

4.) The vowels are named by their sounds, as given in (2). The names of the consonants are "bo", "co", "ĉo", "do", "fo", "go", "ĝo", "ho", "ĥo", "jo", "ĵo", "ko", "lo", "mo", "no", "po", "ro", "so", "ŝo", "to", "ŭo", "vo", "zo". These are used in speaking of the letters, in pronouncing them in abbreviations, as "ko to po" for "k. t. p." (= etc.), and in spelling words, as "bo, i, ro, do, o, birdo".

5.) Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels uttered as a single sound, by one breath-impulse. The diphthongs in Esperanto contain an i or u sound as the second element, but in order to avoid confusion with combinations of vowels not forming diphthongs (as in "naiva", like English "naive", etc.), they are written with "j" and "ŭ" instead. Their pronunciation is as follows:

"aj" like "ai" in "aisle". -- "ej" like "ei" in "vein", "ey" in "they". -- "oj" like "oi" in "coin", "oy" in "boy". -- "uj" like "ui" in "ruin", "u(e)y" in "gluey". -- "eŭ" like "ayw" in "wayward", or like E(h)oo" ( pronounced together). -- "aŭ" like "ou" in "out", "ow" in "owl".

6.) Each consonant, in a combination of two or more consonants, is pronounced with its full value, whether within a word or at its beginning. There are no silent letters.

a.) Thus, both consonants are clearly sounded in the groups "kn", "kv", "gv", "sv", in such words as "knabo", "kvin", "gvidi", "sviso".

b.) The combination "kz", as in "ekzisti", "ekzameno", must not be modified to the "gs" or "ks" represented by "x" in "exist", "execute".

c.) The combination "sc", as in "escepte", "scias", is equivalent to the combination "sts" in "laST Said", "firST Song", pronounced together rapidly. The "s" in a word beginning with "sc" may be sounded with the end of the preceding word, if that word ends in a vowel, as "mis-cias" for "mi scias".

d.) The "n" and "g" are pronounced separately in the combination "ng", in such words as "lingvo", "angulo", producing the sound of "ng" heard in "linger", not that in "singer".

e.) Each of two similar letters is clearly sounded, as "interrilato", "ellasi", like "inter-relate", "well-laid".

7. Each word contains as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs.The division of syllables within a word is as follows:

a.) A single consonant goes with the following vowel, as "pa-no", "be-la", "a-e-ro".

b.) A consonant followed by "l" or "r" (which are liquids) goes with the "l" or "r", as in "ta-blo", "a-kra", "a-gra-bla".

c.) Otherwise, the syllable division is made before the last consonant of the group, as "sus-pek-ti", "sank-ta", "deks-tra".

d.) Prefixes are separated from the words to which they are attached, as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their component parts, as "ĉef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo".

8.) Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti".

9.) (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaŭ, pacienco, centono, ĉielo, eĉ, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Eŭropo, gvidi, ĝojo, ĉiujn, justa, ĝuste, juĝi, ĵaŭdo, lingvo, knabo, larĝa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, ĉevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, ŝipo, ŝarĝi, poŝo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, ŝafaĵo, atmosfero, monaĥo, geometrio, laŭdi, vasta, eksplodi, senĉesa, sensencaĵo, malluma, arbaranoj, manĝo, freŝa, aŭskulti, daŭri.

10.) Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o":

knabo = boy. -- pomo = apple. -- ĉevalo = horse.-- tablo = table.

11.) The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, --"la ĉevalo", the horse,-- "la tablo", the table,-- "la pomo", the apple.-- In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy",- or- "a boy", "pomo" may mean "apple" or "an apple".

12.) A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is "a":

bela = beautiful.-- granda = large.-- flava = yellow.-- forta = strong.

13.) An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an attributive adjective:

la granda ĉevalo = the large horse.--bela birdo = a beautiful bird.--floro flava = a yellow flower.--forta knabo = a strong boy.

14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as": kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping.

15.) The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is called the subject of the verb: La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. -- Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo.

(To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.)

bela = beautiful.-- kaj = and.-- birdo = bird.-- kantas = sings, is singing.-- blanka = white.-- knabo = boy.-- bona = good. -- kuras = runs, is running.-- brilas = shines, is shining.-- la = the.-- ĉevalo = horse.-- luno = moon.-- dormas = sleeps, is sleeping.-- marŝas = walks, is walking. -- flava = yellow.-- pomo = apple.-- floro = flower. -- suno = sun.-- flugas = flies, is flying.-- tablo = table. -- forta = strong,-- violo = violet.--granda = large. -- viro = man.

1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marŝas. 8. La bela ĉevalo kuras 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11. Ĉevalo blanka marŝas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La granda ĉevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas.18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo.

1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good.

16.) The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as "viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table.

[Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.]

bonaj viroj, good men. -- grandaj ĉevaloj, large horses. -- belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower.

[Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.]

18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men.

The verb is also invariable in form:

La viroj marŝas, the men walk, the men are walking. -- La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. -- La viro estas, the man is. -- La viroj estas, the men are.

19.) When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a "predicate adjective":

La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. -- La knabo ŝajnas bona, the boy seems good. -- La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.

20.) A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a "predicate noun":

Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. -- La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird.

21.) Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate relation:

Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. -- La knabo kaj la viro ŝajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong. --

alta = high, tall.-- kolombo = dove.-- arbo = tree. -- kuŝas = lies, is lying, lie.--ĉambro = room. -- longa = long.-- domo = house.-- rozo = rose.-- en = in.-- ruĝa = red. -- estas = is, are.-- seĝo = chair.-- folio = leaf. -- sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. -- freŝa = fresh.-- sur = on.-- ĝardeno = garden. -- ŝajnas = seems, seem.-- kampo = field.-- verda = green.

1. La alta viro estas en la ĝardeno. 2. Blanka ĉevalo estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La ĉambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Freŝaj floroj kuŝas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno ŝajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj ŝajnas fortaj. 11. Ruĝaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la ĉambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur seĝoj en la longa ĉambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj ĉevaloj marŝas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la granda domo. 17. Ruĝaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la ĝardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Freŝaj rozoj ŝajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj kaj ruĝaj.

1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong.11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden.

22.) The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --.

23.) The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the "accusative case":

La viro havas seĝon, the man has a chair. -- La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers.

[Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number.]

24.) An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n" This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words:

La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. -- Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. -- La viro havas grandan seĝon, the man has a large chair. -- Ruĝan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose.

25.) A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18./p>

26.) In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used for both words, being merely repeated:

La viro kaj marŝas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. -- La ĉevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is both large and strong. -- La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and violets. -- Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall.

27.) The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede that word:

Violoj ne estas ruĝaj, violets are not red. -- La viroj ne sidas sur seĝoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs.-- La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. -- La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green.

apud = near, in the vicinity of.-- koloro = color. -- benko = bench.-- larĝa = wide, -- broad.--branĉo = branch. -- manĝas = eat, eats -- diversa = various.-- mola = soft.-- feliĉa = happy.-- nigra = black.--frukto = fruit.-- ne = not, no.-- havas = have, has.-- rompas = break, breaks.-- herbo = grass.--sed = but.-- ili = they.-- trovas = find, finds.--kolektas = gather, collect.-- vidas = see, sees.

1. La knaboj ne estas en la ĉambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas en la granda ĝardeno. 3. La ĝardeno ŝajnas kaj longa kaj larĝa. 4. La feliĉaj knaboj vidas la belan ĝardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj ruĝajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la ĝardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la branĉoj. 11. La knaboj rompas branĉon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la branĉoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la ĝardeno, sed kuŝas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas feliĉaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj ĉevaloj manĝas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas la ĉevalojn, sed la ĉevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La ĉevaloj ne dormas, ili manĝas. 19. La freŝa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Feliĉaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la ĉevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto.

1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses.

28.) The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as "kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have.

29.) An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, it may itself have a direct object:

La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. -- Birdoj ŝatas kanti, birds like to sing. -- La knabo volas havi ĉevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. -- Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers.

30.) An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "ĉu". This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb:

Ĉu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? -- Ĉu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? -- Ĉu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)

31.) In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, the adjective remains in the singular number:

Ili nek marŝas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run.-- La viro havas nek domon nek ĝardenon, the man has neither a house nor a garden.-- Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet is green.

(Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.)

bruna = brown.-- matura = ripe.-- ĉerizo = cherry.-- Mario = Mary.-- ĉu = (30).-- nek = neither, nor.-- dolĉa = sweet.-- persiko = peach.-- gusto = taste.-- jes = yes.-- ĝi = it. -- preferi = to prefer.-- Gertrude = Gertrude.-- ŝati = to like.-- knabino = girl.-- voli = to wish.

1. Ĉu persiko estas ruĝa? 2. Jes, ĝi estas kaj ruĝa kaj dolĉa. 3. Ĉu ĉerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Ĉu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, ĝi estas bona frukto. 6. Ĉu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Ĉu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj manĝas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolĉan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn ĉerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La ĉerizoj havas belan ruĝan koloron. 15. La persikoj ŝajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas branĉon, kaj vidas ĉerizojn sur la branĉoj. 17. Gertrudo estas feliĉa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario ŝatas ĉerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj manĝas la ĉerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas manĝi pomojn, ili preferas la dolĉajn ĉerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la ĉerizoj estas nek larĝaj nek longaj.

1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit.