Literature Review

Due: September 13, 2005

"Programmed Instruction"

What is programmed instruction? 

In programmed instruction students are presented with new subject material in sequential, controlled order.  Students are allowed to work at their own speed.  After each step in the process, student comprehension is tested by use of test questions or completing a diagram.  All material is “programmed” by the instructor.  Students receive immediate feedback from the test or are provided additional information.  Material are usually presented mainly via computers or books.  Instruction that requires the use of computers tests student abilities and tracks student progress.  This type of “computer-assisted instruction” is often used by educators as a supplement to other activities normally done in the classroom.  In addition, it also fosters independent skills.

Who conducted this study?

This study was conducted by McDonald, Yanchar, & Osguthorpe (2005).  At the time of the publication of this article, Jason K. McDonald was a doctoral candidate, Stephen C. Yanchar was Assistant professor, and Russell T. Osguthorpe was Professor.  All worked under the auspices of the Instructional Psychology and Technology Department of Brigham Young University.

Why was this study conducted?

Driving question: What assumptions have contributed to the historical demise of programmed instruction?   This research was conducted in response to the recent challenge by many theorists who have called for “…a critical examination of the foundations of instructional technology, including philosophical assumptions not typically acknowledged or scrutinized”.  As a result, the authors of this article provide a “…theoretical examination of several parallels between contemporary instructional technology (as manifest in one of its most current manifestations, online learning) and one of its direct predecessors, programmed instruction”.

How was this study conducted?

The authors place particular focus on the underlying assumptions of the two movements: (1) contemporary instructional technology and (2) programmed instruction.  They note, “…several historical assumptions that contributed to the demise of programmed instruction can also be seen in the theory and applications of contemporary instructional technology as expressed in online learning”. 

The authors arrived at their conclusion by analyzing the following:

(1)   The historical development of programmed instruction

a.       Early Efforts

b.      The Contribution of B.F. Skinner

(2)   The assumptions of programmed instruction

a.       Ontological Determinism

b.      Materialism

c.       Social Efficiency

(3)   The Decline of programmed instruction

(4)   Learning from programmed instruction

a.       Logical learning theory (LLT)

b.      Self-determination theory (SDT)

c.       Flexible instructional design and technology

Participants: 

There were no participants in this study.  The authors analyzed various historical data and theories.

Important Findings/Results

The authors found that several assumptions have contributed to the historical demise of programmed instruction (1) ontological assumptions of (a) determinism and (b) materialism, (2) social efficiency, and (3) technological determinism.  In addition, these assumptions provide the underlying factors regarding “…contemporary instructional technology theory and practice and threaten its long-term viability as an educational resource”.

Ontological Determinism - This assumption states that since “…human and animal behavior is governed by natural laws, there is no such thing as free will or volition in human behavior”.

Ontological Materialism - This assumption states that “…reality is composed only of physical matter; thus concepts such as mind and memory could be viewed only as empty abstractions”.

Social Efficiency – This assumption suggests that in order for schools to be efficient they must rid themselves of all “unnecessary costs”: educational efficiency.  The quest for effective methods of improving efficiency soon became another variable to be considered in the process of programmed instruction.

Technological determinism – This assumption states, “…technology is the most important force in creating social change”. 

Significance of Study

As a result of this study, the authors note that in order to provide a sturdy foundation for the field, practicing instructional technologists must find ways to create innovative assumptions and theories that are presently lacking in education and psychology.  The authors therefore provided several recommendations.

This study is significant because, instructional technologists create the roadmaps for the local schools.  Therefore, they must be more “broad-minded” in their interpretation of effective instructional experience.  In addition, they must find ways to solicit feedback on a continual basis in order to evaluate their newly created instructional technologies.

What this study means to me and my current position as learner & instructor

As a current instructor, I agree that programmed instruction can help to create a more efficient classroom and also help to supplement conventional teaching methods.  Computers help to teach students how to work independently and require them to be active participants in their own learning.  While programmed instruction is usually used in various industries (including the military) to train personnel, it can also be used effectively in the classroom setting.  However, the authors note, “…as the history of programmed instruction has suggests, the failure to consider alternative approaches narrows the range of viable instruction possibilities, and ultimately jeopardizes an instructional technology’s ability to succeed”.

Reference

McDonald, J. K., et. Al. (2005).  Learning from programmed instruction: examining implications for modern instructional technology.  Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(2), 84-98.