Literature Review
Due: October 11, 2005
"Schema Theory"
What is Schema Theory?
Although Schema Theory was developed by R.C. Anderson, an educational psychologist, the term “schema” was first used by Piaget in 1926. Schema Theory is a learning theory which holds to the belief that knowledge is based on the individual’s personal understanding of the world around them. Driscoll (2005) provides a definition of Schema as used by Bartlett (1932): “…an organizing and orienting attitude that involves active organization of past experiences.”
Who conducted this study?
This study was conducted by Hines Cronin, David Meadows, and Richard Sinatra. At the time of the publication of this article the authors Hines Cronin and David Meadows were Superintendent and Assistant Superintendent of Moss Point School District in Moss Point, Mississippi. The third author, Richard Sinatra, was a Professor at St. John’s University, in Jamaica, New York.
Why was this study conducted?
This study was conducted in response to a legislation passed by the State of Mississippi in 1982 which required school districts to use norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests. These tests were supposed to help “…set baseline data and develop goals to improve student achievement, particularly in reading, writing, and computer application.”
The Moss Point School District located in Moss Point, MS, reviewed 6 elementary schools, 2 junior high schools, and 1 high school in its area. The performance of these schools was compared to the state accreditation criteria. In addition, the district compared their performance to their own goals and objectives. School leaders in Moss Point found that many of their students, specifically 11th grade students, were performing “…below state standards in reading comprehension and in writing.”
The main concern was student achievement in the compositions, formation of sentences, and grammar usage and mechanics. As it is to be expected, all subject areas were being affected as a result of these problems. It was believed that this was as a result of the lack of and programs to help students integrate information across the curriculum. In addition, there were no structures in place to help students integrate the use of computers to improve learning and instruction.
The authors (superintendent, asst. superintendent, and professor) concluded that Moss District must focus more on K-12 writing across the curriculum. But, how could this task be accomplished? By applying “…schema theory in the classroom while teaching students how text is organized.” This strategy, the authors note, “…has been acknowledged by the International Reading Association as an interactive approach between reader and text by which meaning is found and created.”
How was this study conducted?
Research first. The district staff created a plan which included the use of “…semantic mapping and computers consistently in content coursework throughout the district.” In order to develop a scientifically-based approach, as required by NCLB, the authors researched several publications searching specifically for strategies that could be used in vocabulary, reading comprehension, and composition development. The principals, teachers, librarian, and central office staff members worked collaboratively to create the best, most efficient way to teach mapping, writing, and thinking skills to all students. They focused particular attention on science, social studies, and English.
Within the various content areas, teachers preplanned how mapping and writing would be used. They stressed drafting, revising, editing, and publishing stages. This meant that educators had to change their personal philosophical views of teaching content area material. Their approach had to be more “holistic”.
The school district was provided with Apple computer labs. Librarians helped teachers with word processing and supervision of students. The curriculum development team also created a “Thinking Network for Reading and Writing”. This computer approach helped with the training of teachers and also provided models and mapping sequences at the beginning. After teachers and librarians were trained in semantic mapping, they provided various opportunities for students to observe them (model). These programs helped students to create maps visually. These maps represented major and minor ideas and also basic information.
Various individuals, including the principal, carefully selected teachers, and a few central office personnel, were provided staff training. A district-wide assessment criteria was developed to assess training and student performance in response to the changes.
Teachers worked together to plan ways in which students could apply these strategies to the various content areas. This could only be done, however, after students completed the computer mapping programs training.
In order to accomplish their tasks, teachers used basic materials such as chalkboards and overhead projectors to model the three types of semantic maps. The concept boxes were arranged and connected with lines. At the same time, the teacher added meaningful content area vocabulary and ideas in order to create a big picture that connected old information with new ideas.
Participants:
Participants included all students in K-12. However, emphasis was given to students in 11th grade because of the state’s assessment program and as a benchmark for summary evaluation of district-wide performance.
Significance of Study
This study is significant in that presently U.S. schools are struggling to figure out how to create approaches that will benefit students. The use of semantic mapping to apply schema theory in the classroom provides a partial solution to this dilemma. Before schools decide to make changes in their instructional content, educators must understand the concept of schema theory. Many American schools, in their desire/need/pressures to improve scores, have looked to other countries (such as New Zealand) to help solve the educational problems. However, many of these countries employ strategies such as schema theory which is often left out of the implementation in U.S. schools. American school leaders claim they “do not have time” to teach in context. They are bogged down by testing and accountability standards. Students are not free to create anything. Knowledge must have its foundation in the experiences that occur daily. Thinking, interpreting, and interacting with knowledge must be the goal.
What this study means to me and my current position as learner & instructor
Because of accountability standards, much of an instructor’s teaching involves basic information and concepts. Teachers are teaching to the test. However, using semantic mapping to apply schema theory in the classroom provides strategies that will take students beyond 12th grade into their adulthood.
Commentary on the case study research
Educators must help students to make connections between content areas and ideas. These connections can sometimes be made through the use of class discussions, songs/raps, role play, visual aids, etc. These examples help to strengthen their connections. Helping students to develop prior knowledge is also critical since background knowledge helps them to understand and connect new information.
Reference
Cronin, H., et. al. (1990). Integrating computers, reading, and writing across the curriculum. Educational Leadership, 48(1), 57-62.