A n t a r c t i c a - In the footsteps of Robert Falcon Scott Introduction �Romantic ideas don�t make it here. This is not a place to come to escape from something. It is a place to learn new sessions about yourself.� (Bill Coughran, Manager, Amundsen-Scott Station) Most people know that it is very cold in Antarctica. What is less well known is how the cold makes this continent so different from the others. It is larger than Europe or Australia but it has no native human population. It is a place where people have made very little change to the environment. Antarctica is the highest, coldest, windiest, most desolated place on the globe. Temperatures make it even impossible to live there. The average annual temperature at the South Pole is -50 degrees C and generally ranges between -21 degrees C in the summer and -78 degrees C in the winter. In winter the lowest recorded temperatures have even reached �89�C But it irresistibly draws visitors. The fifth largest continent is a giant outdoor laboratory where scientists strive to decipher clues to our planet�s history and detect early warning signs of global pollution. Antarctica has 90 per cent of all the ice in the world and 70 per cent of all the fresh water. If the Antarctic ice were to melt, the sea level would be by 65m. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, surrounding the South Pole. In summer it covers an area of about 14,2 million square kilometres, almost half as big as Europe; in winter it appears to double in size as ice sheets spread out across the surrounding sea. The Antarctic Peninsula, the only substantial piece of land lying outside the Antarctic Circle, juts out towards the tip of South America. The name Antarctica is normally used to describe the continent surrounded by the Southern Ocean. The geography of Antarctica The land beneath the ice: It is difficult to study the geology of Antarctica because around 98 per cent of it is covered by ice. Much of the information about the ground beneath the ice has come from seismic research by setting small explosions at the surface and measuring the sound waves that travel down through the ice and rebound from the rocks below back up to the surface. Scientists can use the measurements to work out what the landscape is like below the ice. Today, scientists can study the landscape under the ice from aeroplanes using radio waves instead of sound waves. Antarctica is the highest of the world�s continents, with an average height above sea level of around 2300m. However, if all the ice were to be removed, it would probably only be about 500m above sea level. If the ice were to be removed from Antarctica, two main areas would be revealed: The largest area, in the eastern hemisphere, consists of a platform of very old rocks overlied by younger rocks. It would be a huge lowland plain with a central range of mountains called the Gamburtsev Mountains, which are completely covered by ice, and another range of mountains on the coast. The remaining land, the Antarctic Peninsula, is really an extension of the South American continent. It is a remnant of a volcanic area that was active until 10 million years ago. The land above the ice: Between eastern and western Antarctica, the Transantarctic Mountains run for more than 3500km across the continent, although only the highest peaks can be seen above the ice. The highest peak is Vinson Massif at 4897m. The small areas of land in Antarctica that are ice-free can be found around the coast and on the steep slopes of the mountains. Around McMurdo Sound, for example, there are river valleys that are dry for most of the year and even some lakes. The only large area of ice-free land is on the Antarctic Peninsula. Antarctica�s natural Resources Oil and natural gas are thought to exist in the continental shelf that extends under the sea around Antarctica. There are also claims that the continent is as rich in minerals as Southern Africa and South America, to which it was once attached. Some iron ore has been found in eastern Antarctica and there are coal seams running through the Transantarctic Mountains, but the quantities are not thought to be worth mining, especially in such inhospitable conditions. Private companies would normally do prospecting for minerals like oil, but as there is a ban on mining on the continent until at least 2041, there is little incentive to go prospecting. Resources of the ocean� The major natural resources of the Atlantic Ocean are whales, seals and fish. Seal hunters were among the first explorers of the region. They came especially to hunt Fur seals, whose fur was used to make hats and felt. By the 1920s, hunters had slaughtered so many that probably less than 100 remained alive. Other types of seals were also hunted, like the Southern Elephant seal. The Fur and Elephant seals were hunted almost to extinction. Today, all seal hunting is controlled by international treaty and the numbers have recovered. There is no commercial hunting of seals and it seems they will never be hunted again on such a scale. But why, when resources are in such demand, is there apparently so little interest in the commercial potential of Antarctica? -One reason is the extreme isolation of Antarctica. The continent is isolated from the main centres of population and wealth, which are mostly in the northern hemisphere. This is where the main demand for resources lies and where most major industries are located. Distance alone discourages development on the Antarctic continent. -An other reason is the harsh conditions in Antarctica. In comparison to Antarctica, the conditions in the Arctic are quite mild. Antarctica is so much colder that working outside for any length of time is impossible. The almost constant winds increase the problems. In addition, the covering of ice, which is always moving, makes the mining of any minerals below it a huge and expensive technical problem. The cost of overcoming the problems would be so great that mining companies could not make profits. Anyone developing Antarctica would also have to pay for everything the industry and the workers needed. Infrastructure is nearly missing in this region! In addition wages for the workers would have to be very high, because of the bad working conditions. Since the 1920s more than 1,3 million whales have been killed in the Southern Ocean too. The number of large whales was reduced to a tiny fraction of what it used to be and some species were on the verge of extinction by the middle of the twentieth century. In 1949 the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up to regulate the whaling industry, but it was totally ineffective. As public pressure to �Save the Whale� built up in the 1970s, and more scientific evidence of the seriousness of the situation became available, a halt on commercial whaling was finally approved. However, there were so few of the larger whales left by that time that most of the traditional whaling countries had already given up whaling because it was uneconomic. In 1994, the IWC declared a Southern Ocean Sanctuary, which protects whales from commercial, hunting south of 40�S. But nowadays whaling has become more and more a moral question. In recent years, the stocks of some whales have increased and some countries of the IWC consider that hunting these types could begin again as long as it is carefully controlled. However, there is still a lot of opposition to whaling. It has now become a moral issue. Whales are probably the next most intelligent creatures after humans. Like us, they communicate with each other, have evolved social structures and they appear to have feelings. To hunt and kill such beings, especially in such a cruel way, is considered wrong by many people. The Southern Ocean was also rich in fish and this attracted fishing fleets to the area. For some types of fish. It took only a few years to reduce the stock to less than 5 per cent of what it was before. As one species became scarce, the fleets turned their attention to another. To prevent a serious situation becoming disastrous, 1982 the Antarctic treaty countries agreed the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. It attempts to protect the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean as whole, rather than individual species within that ecosystem. It uses scientific research to make laws that try to prevent damage before it happens. However, marine scientists do not consider it is working very well. Ozone over Antarctica� Ozone is a gas found in small amounts in the stratosphere, one of the layers that make up the Earth�s atmosphere. Without it the sun�s ultraviolet light can reach the surface. Ultraviolet light can harm all living things. In humans, it can affect our eyesight, cause skin cancer and damage DNA. In 1977, a researcher with the British Antarctic Survey discovered that the amount of ozone in the atmosphere 12-22 km above the continent decreased dramatically in the Antarctic spring. Little attention was paid to the discovery as people thought the instruments must be faulty. But then in 1987 the Nimbus 7 satellite, which was programmed to measure ozone, found a similar reduction. Following this discovery, measurements have been made in other parts of the Earth. A thinning of the ozone layer over the Arctic was found. This was considered very serious because many people live in northern latitudes and there is much agriculture. Warnings are now given when the ozone layer is reduced, so that people can cover their skin. The main causes of the problem are CFCs � chemicals which are used in fridges, air conditioners, the electronics industry and aerosols � and halons used in fire fighting equipment. The leaders of many countries agreed to begin phasing out CFCs and halons, but the chemicals take so long to brek down in the atmosphere that it will take at least another 50 years before the ozone layer recovers. Research has shown that food supply for fish, whales, birds and seals declines when radiation levels are high. Discovery and Exploration - Robert Falcon Scott attempts to reach the South Pole: Antarctica is the coldest continent and the most isolated from other populated areas. It is ringed by the world�s stormiest seas and for much of the year is cut off by impenetrable masses of pack ice. It is no wonder that Antarctica has always been a place that explorer�s dreams are made of, but modern realities are rapidly overtaking the romantic vision of a world apart, icy and forbidding. During the 19th century exploring the planet we live on was a widespread undertaking. By the turn of the century most of the world had been mapped, but the huge continent of Antarctica, half again the size of the United States, remained largely unexplored and unknown. For centuries people could only guess that there might be a continent there and put on their maps Terra Australis Incognita, or unknown southern land. It was whale and seal hunters who discovered Antarctica. The first known landing was in 1821 by an American seal hunter. Two years later, whaling ship captained by James discovered the sea that now carries his name. By the 1830s all the reports from whale and seal hunters seemed to suggest there was a continent surrounding the South Pole, and several countries sent official expeditions. All the early expeditions took place during the less-harsh summer months. In the early years of the twentieth century, there was great interest in scientific investigation of Antarctica, especially the Earth�s South Magnetic Pole. Britain, Sweden and Germany all sent research groups to Antarctica. Britain�s first expedition, in 1904 -7, was lead by Commander Robert Falcon Scott, who later died while attempting to be the first to reach South Pole. Robert Falcon Scott was born at Outlands on June 6, 1868. Throughout his childhood, Scott was a quite shy, small and backward boy; he always seemed weakly for his age. And above all, he couldn�t overcome his daydreaming, which was regarded as a weakness by everyone around him. Robert F. Scott joined his first seagoing ship in August, 1883, at the age of thirteen. The ship, HMS Boadicea, was the flagship of the Cape Squadron, and in her he served as midshipman for two years where he had to learn hard lessons. He had to learn to bear pain without flinching, to obey orders directly, and to act in a mature way. Scot was considered there as an excellent example of a student. After that he worked on various ships and always got high recommendations from the captain. When Scott was 18 he was a Midshipman aboard the Rover. The ship was cruising in the Caribbean. The midshipmen of 4 other ships raced their cutters (a type of small boat) across the bay at St. Kitts in the West Indies. The race was narrowly won by Scott and 4 days later he was invited aboard the ship Active to dine with the Commodore, Albert Markham. Present at the dinner was Albert's cousin, a middle-aged geographer named Clements Markham. Clements was thoroughly impressed by Con's intelligence, enthusiasm and charm and later wrote "My final conclusion was that Scott was the destined man to command the Antarctic expedition". Clements Markham saw Antarctica as the last great frontier on earth and the ideal place to demonstrate Britain's continuing leadership in scientific exploration. He knew that he had to chose a young, energetic and intelligent officer to lead such an adventure That was an decisive step in Scott�s life. The two men crossed paths several more times during the next decade. Each time, Sir Clements was more thoroughly impressed by the young officer and more certain that he would be the one to someday lead the Antarctic explorations, but he did not mention a word of his plans to Lieutenant Scott until June, 1899, where they met each other in London and Sir Clements talked to him about a prospective Antarctic expedition. 2 days later, Scott wrote that he was very much interested in commanding it, and one year later he was officially appointed! The ship which was constructed for his use was called Discovery. Scott carried on serving in the Royal Navy until his sailing in Discovery to Antarctic in 1901. The adventure was to be a joint effort by the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society. The collaboration was not an easy one. One of the main disputes was the distribution of responsibility under the navel officers. Sir Clements' group believed that the Antarctic wilderness was an ideal proving ground on which to demonstrate British fortitude to the world, and thought it vital that the first expedition to reach the South Pole should be British. The Royal Society was more interested in practical scientific research. Falcon Scott finally got the instruction to pursue neither geographic exploration nor scientific research at the expense of the other. On 16th August, 1901, Discovery left for New Zealand, where she was supplied and finally departed on 21st December the start of summer in the southern hemisphere. After long discussions of the Royal Society there was decided to give the permission to Scott to spend the winter in Antarctica, because he needed the time for a possibly reaching of the pole. Early in February, Commander Scott began preparing for the winter. The ship was secured to the edge of the ice shelf until the bay froze over and locked it firmly into a block of ice. During this time the crew was exposed to great dangers, because there were constantly snowstorms going on, but most of the incidents ended without tragedy. When spring arrived, three men wanted to make the attempt to reach the south pole: Scott himself, Dr. Edward Wilson, and Ernest Shackleton. The 3 pioneers had a hard voyage. The dogs selected to pull their sledges died one by one, in some instances killing each other, and leaving the explorers to haul their supplies themselves. This let them move forward only very slowly; strictly speaking they could manage only 3 or 4 miles per day towards a goal more than 800 miles distant. Not until the last day of the year did they finally turn back. On the return trip Shackleton became terribly ill and was too weak to remain aboard Discovery and ordered him and some other crewmen back to England with the relief ship. Scott decided that he would spend yet another winter on the ice shelf. It was late September, 1903, before the long Antarctic night ended and conditions again permitted Scott to venture on another long trek. None of the parties, who set off as well in various directions at the start of the new sledging season ventured any nearer the Pole than Scott, Shackleton, and Wilson had the previous year. As of the first days of 1904, the ice that held Discovery in place appeared as if it would outlast yet another Antarctic summer. Scott was given a headline either to free the Discovery and bring her home or to abandon her, but finally the ice began to break up, and on 16th February Discovery at last headed towards England. As Scott returned to England the public celebrated him as a hero, but the Government and scientific community were critical of his handling of the expedition. He himself was disappointed over his failure to reach the Pole, and he began to plan for a second expedition. To his annoyance Ernest Shackleton, was launching his own mission to Antarctica. The South Geographic Pole, on the axis of the Earth's rotation, was the goal of Ernest Shackleton in 1908-09. Earnest Shackleton was the first person to organize an expedition to the South Pole. His party set out from McMurdo Sound in October 1908. Shakleton planned to use Siberian ponies to pull the sledges, but by the time he started most of them had died and the remainder only survived for six weeks. To make the round trip of around 2 700 km the explorers would have to pull the sledges most of the way themselves. They made great effort and by 9 January 1909 were within 150 km of the Pole. Pulling the sledges had taken much of their strength, because they had to endure low temperatures and high altitudes and they had very little food to eat. In the end they decided to turn round and try to get back. They lost their way in blizzards and were suffering from frostbite, snow blindness and dysentery, but they just made it back to safety. The next attempts on the South Pole were made simultaneously by two separate groups. Roald Amundsen led a Norwegian expedition and Robert Falcon Scott. Meanwhile, Scott's second expedition was proving to be in complete contrast to the first. He spent a full year tirelessly raising money, though he didn�t like such work. He tried to buy Discovery, but its new owners refused to sell her and he settled for the whaler Terra Nova. Scott couldn�t really find supporters for his second expedition, there was barely enough money to pay the crew and fuel the ship. Above all, Scott got a telegram sent by Roald Amundsen to inform Scott that the Norwegian had changed his plans(he originally wanted to go north) and was heading south. The expedition had become a race, and Terra Nova got off to a slow start. Even though there were bad weather conditions they could establish a camp by the end of December. On the 19th of October Amundsen�s group had set up camp in the Bay of Whales, on the opposite side of the Ross Ice Shelf from Scott�s camp at McMurdo Sound, which was 60 miles nearer the Pole than Scott's camp at Cape Evans. Due to the climate of their home country, the Norwegians were much more experienced in working on the ice and in handling dog teams. Scott remembered his own bad experiences with dogs during his first attempt to reach the South Pole, that�s why he tried to take ponies with him, even though it is well known that they aren�t suitable for polar climate. During the winter Scott was planning a strategy for his trek to the Pole. He decided that he didn�t want to risk a race with Amundsen, but wanted to prepare himself and his crew for the expedition. The British expedition's advance party with Scott as Captain set out on 24th October, 1911. Although the ponies kept going for a while, for most of the 1,600-mile round trip Scott and his companions again had to drag the supplies along themselves. Although the weather was particularly severe Scott reached Ernest Shackleton's "furthest south" on 6th January. The final supporting party turned back north on the third day of 1912, leaving five men to make the final trek to the Pole--Scott, Captain Lawrence Oates, Dr. Edward Wilson, Lieutenant Henry Bowers, and Petty Officer Edgar Evans. For two more weeks these five marched on alone coming nearer and nearer to the Pole. Then, on 16th January, just a day's march from their goal, Scott's pessimism turned to despair. "The worst has happened," he recorded in his journal. "About the second hour of the day Bowers' sharp eyes detected what he thought was a cairn....We marched on, found that it was a black flag tied to a sledge bearer; near by the remains of a camp. The Norwegians have forestalled us and are first at the pole." On 14th December 1912 Amundsen�s group had reached the South Pole, just about one month before Scott�s group. Disappointed the the five-man British party examined the items the Norwegians had left behind and soon they started their return journey. But the conditions were really bad. They lost one man after the other on their way doing their best by walking six or seven miles a day, and the winter was drawing nearer. About 11 miles away from One Ton Depot, the large supply cache Scott had established the previous year, a blizzard prevented them from going any further. They weren�t able to do anything else but staying in their tent and waiting for their death. The following spring, a search team found their tent and the bodies of the three remaining Pole party-members Scott, Wilsen and Bowers. but their scientific records, as well as 35 pounds of geological specimens that Scott had refused to abandon even at the end, were recovered. His journals were also brought back. Despite losing the race to the Pole, Scott did perhaps achieve part of Sir Clements' mission after all, by demonstrating "that Englishmen can endure hardships, help one another and meet death with as great a fortitude as ever in the past." Exploring further afield� After Scott and Amundsen, other explorers lead expeditions to other parts of Antarctica, parts that were still completely unknown. In 1914 Ernest Shackleton embarked on the Imperial Trans-Antarctic-Expedition. The following winter, his ship Endurance became trapped and crushed by pack ice in the Weddell Sea. Sheckleton set out alone in an open boat on a 1300-km journey from Elephant Island, near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, to South Georgia. There he summoned help and returned with a party of rescuers to save his crew. The next large-scale explorations began in 1928, with expeditions from Australia and the USA. The Australian Hubert Wilkins made the first airplane flights over the continent and surveyed the Antarctic Peninsula, and the American Robert Byrd led three further expeditions in the 1930s and 1940s. International Interest in Antarctica grew after the end of the Second World War in 1945, and the foundations for today�s extensive scientific research programmes were laid in the 1950s, especially during International Geophysical Year , 1957-58. The highlight of Antarctic research during International Geophysical Year was the crossing of the continent by Vivian Fuch�s Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1957-8. In addition, 50 research stations were established in Antarctica at which scientists from 12 nations could live and work during the winter as well as the summer. Supplies were brought to these stations by ship, air and motorized sledges. The year was extremely successful. It was very important for scientific research in Antarctica. Many nations worked together to find out more about the region and what influence it had on the rest of the world. It was so successful that a decision was made to try and maintain the cooperation. In 1959 the Antarctic Treaty was agreed by 12 nations that had set up bases in Antarctica during IGY, and it came into operation in 1961 in order to create a peaceful future for Antarctica. The Treaty is still in force and is working very well. It has enable scientists from around the world to work together. Even Russian and Western scientists were able to work together during the Cold War, when relations between East and West were very strained. The knowledge gained from the research has been invaluable to all countries. (e.g. problem of ozone layer) Territorial claims� One of the reasons for national scientific and exploration expeditions to Antarctica was to support territorial claims in order to own parts of Antarctica so that they would be able to use any resources that might be discovered there, for example, there are coal-deposits and oil under the ocean bed. Many countries have been involved in the discovery, exploration and scientific investigation of Antarctica. Seven of them have made territorial claims, sometimes for the same piece of land. For example, Britain, Chile and Argentina all have claims on the peninsula stretching towards South America. Such competing claims led to each country using its own set of place names, to the confusion of the rest of the world. At least, they have managed to agree on a new name for the area until the claims are resolved � the Antarctic Peninsula. - Almost all of Antarctica is claimed by at least one country, and some parts are claimed by two or even three nations. The distribution of research stations is related to these territorial claims. In the past, the USSR built stations on each of the sectors claimed by other nations, while the USA put a station at the South Pole to cover all the claimed sectors. Britain, Chile, Argentina and Australia all built several bases in the sectors they claimed. Some of the bases still seem to exist more to back up sovereignty claims than for any scientific purpose. Conservation and development Antarctica is the only continent that has remained free of all commercial development. Only scientific research is allowed. The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 established Antarctica as a continent for international cooperation in scientific, non-military research. Since then, Antarctica has become a laboratory for finding out about the evolution of the Earth and how it is changing today, often as a result of human activities. Using basic information about Antarctica, measured constantly, scientists have shown that what happens elsewhere ob the Earth has an effect on Antarctica and the other way round. For examples, analysis of ice-cores over 160 000 years old, show that the climate in Antarctica has fluctuated considerably in the past. Ice from the last 100 years shows an increasing amount of air pollution, mainly as a result of industrialization in Europe and North America. There are many people and some countries that would like this situation (no commercial development) to remain forever by making Antarctica into a World Park. There are others who believe that it should be possible to develop the resources of Antarctica as elsewhere in the world. They accept that any development would have to be controlled so that there would be no serious damage to the environment. The Antarctica Treaty of 1959 helped keep the continent free of all commercial development for 30 years. At the end of that period, countries could ask for changes to the Treaty, but any changes would have to be agreed on by all the other countries. In 1989 a group of countries had prepared a set of proposals, which, if accepted, would have allowed mineral resources to be developed. The set of proposals was called the Convention for the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, usually referred to as CRAMRA. They were strongly opposed by a few countries and by most environmentalists. The stage was set for a battle between the protectionists and the developers, and the outcome would determine the future of Antarctica after 1989. France and Australia refused to sign the new Convention and were at the opinion that Antarctica should become a World Park where protection of the environment is most important. Other countries turned down this idea and a compromise was suggested. Discussions continued for 2 years, when it looked like a revision to the Treaty had been agreed by everyone and could at last be signed. The revision banned all mining for 50 years. However, at the last minute, the USA refused to sign. It didn�t like the clause that said at the end of the 50-year period the ban could only be overturned if all the treaty nations agreed. After much pressure from other nations, the USA finally relented, but only after concessions had been made. The new agreement, called the Protocol on Environmental Protection, is an addition to the original treaty. All mining and mineral extraction is banned until 2041, after which the ban can be lifted if 75 per cent of the members of the Antarctic Treaty agree. For the time being the continent has been spared from the risks of development. The human Impact� Even without commercial development, the Antarctic environment has been damaged by explorers and scientists. Scientists need shelter, laboratories, regular deliveries of supplies, and transport to scientific sites and other bases, and they produce considerable quantities of waste. Scientific bases have accumulated rubbish, burnt it or disposed of it in the sea. The sites were often untidy with leaking fuel drums and waste contaminating the land. Old bases were just abandoned with no attempt to restore the environment. In 1983, France began building a long runway at Dumont d�Urville so that it could use large Hercules transport planes to supply its scientists. There was much opposition from environmentalists and a survey was done to assess how much damage it would cause. The survey team recommended that the runway should be abandoned because of the environmental damage it would cause, but in 1987 building continued anyway. Five islands inhabited by Emperor penguins were blown up to provide the materials for its construction. In 1989 an Argentinean supply ship sank off the Western Antarctic Peninsula, spilling over a million litres of diesel fuel into the sea. It affected bird and marine life in the area. The environmental damage of such accidents is likely to be long lasting, because diesel fuel takes 100 times longer to break down in Antarctica than in a warmer climate. In 1983, Greenpeace began a campaign to protect Antarctica. From 1986 it visited the region to find out for itself how well the environment was being respected. There was a base established, and it also demonstrated successfully that it is possible to work in Antarctica without causing damage to the environment. When Green peace left in 1992, the base was dismantled and removed completely. Future Much has been written about the future of Antarctica. During the 1960s there was a belief that with modern technology anything could be achieved. There were visions of permanent settlements built under huge transparent domes, supplied with energy from nuclear power stations. Other ideas included creating settlements within the ice itself. Such scenes are only likely to become reality if huge deposits of natural resources are found and it is agreed they can be extracted. Strategy for a sustainable future� There is agreement that the main activity in Antarctica should be scientific research and that the environment should be protected. The research programmes in Antarctica are valuable to us all. They help scientists to learn more about how the Earth�s natural systems work and how human activities around the world are affecting them. With this information, global problems can be identified and action taken to resolve them before it is too late. The international agreements to phase out CFC�s and other chemicals that damage the ozone layer are a direct result of research that began in Antarctica. Antarctica is also a particularly good place from which to study the upper atmosphere. This is the zone in which navigation and communication satellites orbit. Magnetic storms can disrupt their operation causing problems for people on the ground. Trying to forecast when such storms will occur is as important as weather forecasting is on the ground. Research in Antarctica is expensive, so it makes good sense for countries to work together on projects, avoid doing similar research and share their results. The international Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) has done a lot to help such cooperation. In the future, national research programmes and bases may be replaced by an international programme carried out environmentally friendly, making use of wind and solar energy and producing very little waste. When they are no longer needed, they will be able to be dismantled and removed leaving little trace that humans were ever there. Antarctica�s environment is relatively safe for the time being. However, should valuable resources such as oil and gas be found pressure to allow mining will increase, as these resources become scarce elsewhere in the world? However carefully controlled, development will mean the end of the Earth�s last unspoilt wilderness. We can all help to prevent this by not wasting resources. |