******
Holbrook Jackson(a) considered the topic of foodstuffs and their sampling, much the same as a collector approaches books. This is the reason that the following discourse appeared in his book, The Anatomy of Bibliomania (or vulgarly retitled in a new edition, The Book About Books).
... "We all know that the human body can be nourished on a great variety of foods, but how great that variety is we do not realize. Aulus Gellius (Noct. Att. ix, 4), tells of a dainty people in farthest India with bodies covered with feathers, spiritu florum maribus hausto victitantem, who lived by inhaling the perfume of flowers; and, in the other extreme, a trustworthy observer (Groome, Two Suffolk Friends, 16) gives out that a native of Earl Soham in Suffolk loved to catch young frogs and let them leap down his throat, when he would stroke his stomach, observing that they were Beautifully cool. Well may Thoreau reckon that there is not one kind of food for all men (Letters, 2.vi.1848), for his own part he was not unusually squeamish, and could, if put to it, eat a fried rat with a good relish.(Walden, Scott. Lib. 216) Human beings are the most omnivorous of all creatures. They can eat anything, even each other(b), and find nourishment in all manner of unpalatable stuff, even though, as Emerson (The American Scholar) argues, it were boiled grass(c) and the broth of shoes.
In Greenland they eat half-putrified whale and seal, and in England game birds and venison(d) in the same state; the Laplanders relish bear and reindeer, and the Esquimaux and Samoiedes walrus, beaver, otter and fox, as well as decaying fish; the Calmuc Tartars eat horse and ass(e), preferably putrid, whilst fresh horse-flesh is a regular food in Germany, France and Italy; the Chinese, bad eggs(f), salted earthworms, smoked fish, sharks's fins, bird's nest, maggots(g), caterpillars, cats(h), dogs(i) and rats(j); in Pegum Aracab and Siam serpents and mice are delicacies, and the natives of the Ladrone Islands subsist on roots(k), fruit and fish; Hindoos are vegetarian; Persians enjoy wild ass flesh, and in olden times they ate camels and ostriches; the aborigines of Australia feed upon kangaroos, rats, opossums(l), bandicoots and rabbits, and they have an inborn taste for various insects and reptiles; reptile eating is still practiced in Europe, where the French eat frogs and the English assess turtle(m) a delicacy; Hottentots eat putrid buffalo, caterpillars, ants, grasshoppers and snakes; Western Europeans eat shrimps and crabs; Melanesians eat lice; Kaffirs enjoy lion flesh when they can get it, as well as elephant; Moors and Gipsies like hedgehog; the French and English enjoy snails, the former preferring the land and the latter the sea varieties such as whelks and periwinkles; Red Indians eat rattlesnakes(n); crocodiles(o) and iguanas are eaten in South America and West Indies; the sloth is a dainty in Peru, and the tapir and armadillo in Brazil; centipedes are a delicacy in Central America, and shrimps, prawns, crayfish(p) and lobsters in North America and most European countries; the Ottameques of the Orinoco, the Indians of the MacKenzie, the Peruvians and the Javanese, eat various kinds of earth and clay(q), a custom not unknown to Europe, for there have been earth eaters in Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Turkey, and in Germany the wood of various trees has been converted into a nutritious substance, and the barke-brod of the Norwegians is made from the bark of trees (Most of these facts are taken from Illustrations of Eating (a)(1847) where many of the sources are cited.)
The manner of eating these various foods is as varied as the foods themselves. The flesh is eaten either raw, cooked, dried, salted or pickled; it is boiled to a pulp or burnt to a cinder; roasted, fried, baked, grilled or stewed; but in some instances the food is relished only when it is alive. The insect-eaters of the South Seas and the oyster-eaters of Western civilizations have this particularity in common; but this taste reaches its finest expression in Abyssinia, where the cow or bull which is to be the main course of the feast is led to the table and carved alive in the presence of the diners (Bruce Abyssinia); in Sumatra, where it was the custom to dine off the bodies of condemned criminals or prisoners of war, the victim was brought alive to the table, and tied to a stake; but although the guest selected and carved each his own slice, which might be eaten raw, it was sometimes grilled and served with a seasoning of chili pepper and salt."
***
Holbrook Jackson missed a great culinary legend by not including A New Voyage to Carolina by John Lawson in his review of man's eating habits. Lawson wrote of his travels in the Carolinas in 1700. The Indian guides introduced him to many strange and "different" foods. On Tuesday, September 11, 1700 Lawson wrote in his diary, "By the way our guide kill'd more Turkeys, and two polecats(r), which he eat, esteeming them before fat turkeys. Some of the turkeys which we eat, whilst we stay'd there, I believe, weigh'd no less than 40 pounds... At Night we kill'd a Possum, being cloy'd with Turkeys, made a Dish of that, which tasted much between young Pork and Veal, their Fat being as white as any I ever saw." pp 27.
***
Raccoon should be added to the list. Raccoon burgers came under USDA criticism because the meat was not Federally inspected and improved. This from the Agency that regulates the slaughter of rabbits under the definition of chicken, since they had no rules for rabbits. This surely follows the logic of the lawyer who argued successful in court that a mullet is not a fish but a bird, since it has a gizzard (The twisted logic of the USDA must be that although the rabbit lacks a gizzard it must be a bird, since it is raised in Arkansas. Stranger things than rabbits, and chickens have come from the Ozarks.) Once when skinning a raccoon for the pelt, the dogs were as attentive as if a rabbit or beeve had been the fare. On the other hand, they completely ignored possum or fox.
a) The Anatomy of Bibliomania or The Book About Books by Holbrook Jackson (a), Avenel Books, New York, 1981, pp.170 Why Avenel Books would chouse to publish such a valuable reference on perishable paper is known only to them. It cheapens the work of Mr. Jackson. Jackson relied heavily on Illustrations of Eating by "the beef eater," George Vasey. This small book has been reprinted by Richard Archer and makes most interesting reading. To Mr. Archer's credit, he produced a reprint that will stand the test of time being well printed and bound.
****
Had Holbrook Jackson sourced the writings of Samuel Butler, Hudibras, and the careful annotations of Treadway Nash and Zachary Grey, he would have been led on the merry chase to find Sir Thomas Browne's, Pseudodoxia Epidemica (or Vulgar Errors by which it is more commonly known. Jackson would have been surprised at the breadth that mankind has tasted the fruits (In this case fruits refers to both plant and animal.) of the field. Accordingly, is here added an extract from Browne's discourse on the meats of our table:
.... while we single out several dishes and reject others, the selection seems but arbitrary, or upon opinion; for many are commended and cryed up in one age, which are decryed and nauseated in another. Thus in the dayes of Mecenas, no flesh was preferred before young Asses; which notwithstanding became abominable unto succeeding appetites. At the table of Heliogabalus the combs of Cocks were an esteemed service; which country stomacks will not admit at ours. The Sumen or belly and dugs of swine with Pig, and sometimes beaten and bruised unto death (this sounds much like chitterlings which are now much favored by some groups): the womb of the same Animal, especially that was barren, or else had cast her yong one, though a tough and membranous part, was magnified by Roman Pallats; whereunto nevertheless we cannot perswade our stomacks. How Alec, Muria, and Garum, would humour our gust I know not; but surely few there are that could delight in the Cyceon; that is, the common draught of Honey, Cheese, parcht Barley-flower, Oyl, and Wine; which notwithstanding was a commended mixture, and in high esteem among them. We mortifie our selves with the diet of fish, and think we fare coursly if we refrain from the flesh of other animals. But antiquity held another opinion hereof: When Pythagoras in prevention of luxury advised, not so much as to tast on fish. Since the Rhodians were wont to call them clowns that eat flesh: and since Plato to evidence the temperance of the noble Greeks before Troy, observed, that it was not found they fed on fish, though they lay so long near the Helespont; and was only observed in the companions of Menelaus, that being almost starved, betook themselves to fishing about Pharos. Nor will (I fear) the attest or prescript of Philosophers and Physitians, be a sufficient ground to confirm or warrant common practice, as is deducible from ancient Writers, from Hippocrates, Galen, Simeon, Sethi: and the later tracts of Nonnus and Castellanus. So Aristotle and Albertus commend the flesh of young Hawks: Galen the flesh of Foxes about Autumn when they feed on Grapes: but condemneth Quails, and ranketh Geese but with Ostriches: which notwithstanding, present practice and every table extolleth. Men think they have fared hardly, if in times of extremity they have descended so low as Dogs: But Galen delivereth, that young, fat and gelded, they were the food of Many Nations: and Hippocrates ranketh the flesh of Whelps with that of Birds: who also commends them against the Spleen, and to promote conception. The opinion in Galen's time, which Pliny also followeth, deeply condemned Horse-flesh, and conceived the very blood thereof destructive; but no diet is more common among the Tartars, who also drink their blood. And though this may only seem an adventure of Northern stomacks, yet as Herodotus tells us, in the hotter clime of Persia, the same was a convivial dish, and solemnly eaten at the feasts of their nativities: whereat they dressed whole Horses, Camels and Asses; contemning the Poverty of Grecian feasts, as unfurnish'd of dishes sufficient to fill the bellies of their guests.
Again, While we confine our diet in several places, all things almost are eaten, if we take in the whole earth: for that which is refused in one country, is accepted in another, and in the collective judgment of the world, particular distinctions are overthrown. Thus were it not hard to shew, that Tigers, Elephants, Camels, Mice, Bats and others, are the food of several countries; and Lerius with others delivers, that some Americans eat of all kinds, not refraining Toads and Serpents:and some have run so high, as not to spare the flesh of man: a practice inexcusable, not to be drawn into example, a diet beyond the rule and largest indulgence of God.
As for the objection against beasts and birds of prey, it acquitteth not our practice, who observe not this distinction in fishes: nor regard the same in our diet of Pikes, Perches, and Eels; Nor are we excused herein, if we examine the stomacks of Mackerels, Cods, and Whitings. Nor is the foulness of food sufficient to justifie our choice; for (beside their natural heat is able to convert the same into laudable aliment) we refuse not many whose diet is more impure then some which we reject; as may be considered in hogs, ducks, puets,(17) and many more.
Thus we perceive the practice of diet doth hold no certain course, nor solid rule of selection or confinement; Some in an indistinct voracity eating almost any, other out of a timerous pre-opinion, refraining very many. Wherein indeed necessity, reason and Physick, are the best determinators. Surely many animals may be fed on, like many plants; though not in alimental, yet medical considerations: Whereas having raised Antipathies by prejudgement or education, we often nauseate proper meats, and abhor that diet which disease or temper requireth.
Now whether it were not best to conform unto the simple diet of our fore-fathers, whether pure and simple waters were not more healthfull then fermented liquors; whether there be not an ample sufficiency without all flesh, in the food of honey, oyl, and the several parts of milk: in the variety of grains, pulses, and all sorts of fruits; since either bread or beverage may be made almost of all? whether nations have rightly confined unto several meats? or whether the common food of one countrey be not more agreeable unto another? how indistinctly all tempers apply unto the same, and how the diet of youth and old age is confounded: were considerations of much concerning health, and might prolong our days, but must not this discourse.
Egyptians refrained swine's flesh, as an impure and sordid animal: which whoever but touched, was fain to wash himself.
Some abstained superstitiously or upon religious consideration: So the Syrians refrained Fish and Pigeons; the Egyptians of old, Dogs, Eeles, and Crocodiles; though Leo Africanus delivers, that many of late, do eat them with good gust: and Herodotus also affirmeth, that the Egyptians of Elephantina (unto whom they were not sacred,) did eat thereof in elder times and Writers testify, that they are eaten at this day in India and America. And so, as Caesar reports,(1) unto the ancient Britains it was piaculous (criminal) to taste a Goose, which dish at present no table is without.
Unto some Nations the abstinence was political and for some civil advantage: So the Thessalians refrained Storks, because they destroyed their Serpents; and the like in sundry animals is observable in other Nations.
And under all these considerations were some animals refrained: so the Jews abstained from swine at first symbolically, as an Emblem of impurity; and not for fear of the Leprosie, as Tacitus would put upon them. The Cretans superstitiously, upon tradition that Jupiter was suckled in that countrey by a Sow. Some Egyptians politically, because they supplyed the labour of plowing by rooting up the ground. And upon like considerations perhaps the Phoenicians and Syrians fed not on this Animal: and as Solinus reports, the Arabians also and Indians. A great part of mankind refraining one of the best foods, and such as Pythagoras himself would eat; who, as Aristoxenus records refused not to feed on Pigs.
(1) Lib. 5 de bello Gall. [5.12 or Englished at Perseus; he also says the Britons could not eat hares or chickens, although they raised them. It is most unconvincing, but he was there and I wasn't.]
Sir Thomas Browne (1646; 6th ed., 1672) Pseudodoxia, Epidemica III:xxvi. Concerning the common course of Diet, in making choice of some Animals, and abstaining from eating others. The source of this information is derived from a page maintained at the University of Chicago by James Eason, who welcomes comments, criticism, and suggestions. (A pleasing parody of Sir Browne's work by Mr. Eason on Welsh Rarebit, follows the page cited. Please see the note from Mr. Eason at the end of this essay regarding authorship of the parody.)
Mr. Browne is said to have "known how difficult it is to eradicate cherished beliefs from men's minds; but he does not despair of gaining a favorable hearing." "Though he professed his anxiety to dispel popular superstitions, Browne was himself not a little imbued with the spirit of credulity. He believed in astrology, alchemy, witchcraft, and magic...." Pseudodoxia Epidemica, known also as Vulgar Errors, is only rarely available as a reprint from Oxford University Press, 1981, or the more precious original editions. The Works of Six Thomas Browne, in three or four volumes has been published by a number of houses and is more agreeably priced (Pseudodoxia Epidemica is in the first volume of this series.)
***
The lettered footnotes in addition to referenced work, are an attempt to update Jackson's topics in a rather limited fashion, based on personal observations and current published sources.
(a) The Anatomy of Bibliomania or The Book About Books by Holbrook Jackson (a), Avenel Books, New York, 1981, pp.170 Holbrook Jackson relied heavily on Illustrations of Eating by "the beef eater," George Vasey. This small book has been reprinted by Richard Archer and makes most interesting reading.
(b) Mincemeat was once perhaps produced with tissues from Homo sapiens, or at least this is suggested in Butler's Hudibras. And, a group of South Sea Islanders being questioned about their fondness for Spam (tm), said, "It taste a bit like the "other" meat.
(c) Another name for asparagus is grass. Poke-salat is the young just emerged shoots of the poke plant. While the berries give a dark purple stain to most all they touch and are poisonous, the "greens" are a delicacy. Being the first greens to emerge in early spring they were much sought after (cooking the greens destroys the toxic principle). Additionally, the poke ( Phytolacca Decandra also called Skoke, Garget, or Pigeon-berry) weed root (was/is considered to be useful for a number of afflictions including tuberculosis, aka scrofula.)
(d) Audubon (Audubon's America, edited by Donald Culross Peattie, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1940, "Up the Missouri) was disgusted to see Indians drag a drowned buffalo from the Missouri river and use if for food. Buffalo tongue and liver were considered to be the best parts. There are few meats that compare to the toughness of the buffalo. Small wonder they would prefer an "aged" carcass to a fresh one. The hanging of game at least overnight is not an unfamiliar practice today. In many markets, chickens, drawn but not quartered may be seen. The possum has met with a similar fate in the Southern United States. It is preferred to let the carcass age at least overnight before proceeding. (One practice is to throw the dead possum on the roof of the house which protects it from the dogs, cats, rats, &c. as it is tenderized by natural enzymes within the tissues.)
(e) The Wall Street Journal has had articles on occasion on the
desirability of horse meat. In one instance it followed a Samoan family
that bought a pet pony from a family (I think in Las Vegas), and when the
deal was done, the buyer knocked the pony in the head and with it in the
back of his pickup, headed home for a family feast. In another, it was
reported that the latest scare about mad cow disease and foot and mouth
disease had lead to an improved market for horses that now were in great
demand in Europe.
The USDA inspects meat from a Kansas slaughter house that specializes in
horses.
(f) When the famous artist and naturalist, James Audubon visited Florida in search of birds to illustrate, he was treated to scrambled eggs of the sea turtles that were harvested from the sandy beaches. Other naturalist have written of the use of turtle eggs, as example, Charles Torrey Simpson in Lower Florida Wilds.
(g) During the civil war, maggots were grown in corn meal (the basic food commodity) to meet the need for protein in the diet.
(h) Tad Tuleja in The Cat's Pajamas describes the origin of the term, "to skin a cat", that it comes from the practice of preparation of the cat for a visit to the pot. Be advised that the source of information contained within Tuleja's book comes from the inner works of his brain and are intended to amuse not inform. In 1399 an entire chapter of a cook book contained recipes in which the cat played a major role (Reference to this book has not been found.) Humble pie, the dish of the English living in the north featured cat as a major ingredient.
In "Two Little Tales" a short story by Mark Twain, a character described as "... that ragged poor thing that thinks he's a butcher because he goes around with a basket and sells cat's meat and rotten livers..."
(i) Dog was considered the highest of possible offerings at dinner to a special guest by the American Indian. An old saying was "dig deep in pot, puppy at bottom."
(j) American G Is were treated to a French dish which they thought to be squirrel, but was found to be its cousin, the one with the hairless tail which was in much more plentiful supply.
(k) The sago palm serves as the basic ingredient in the diet of some South Sea Islanders. In the case of Florida's palms, the "heart of palm" is taken from the top, leaves removed and the heart is cooked to yield a vegetable not unlike artichoke. In Florida Wild Life by Charles Torrey Simpson, he writes that Indians ate the heart both cooked and uncooked. He also wrote that Florida's black bear climbs the palm and eats the heart.
(l) The possum has met with a similar fate in the Southern United States. It is preferred to let the carcass age at least overnight before proceeding.
(m) Maryland terrapins were considered a delicacy and shipped by the thousands to New York. They were bedded in sea-grass or wet hay to keep them fresh. More on turtles and the like.
(n) I suppose this refers to the American Indian. Audubon was disgusted to see Indians drag a drowned buffalo from the Missouri river and use if for food. Buffalo tongue and liver were considered to be the best parts. There are few meats that compare to the toughness of the buffalo. Small wonder they would prefer an "aged" carcass to a fresh one. In killing buffalo, the Indians, if so lucky as to find the cow to be with calf, savored the unborn animal (current slaughterhouse terminology is to call the fetus a slunk) as a delicacy.
(o) Now that alligator is no longer on the endangered species list, it is harvested and the meat sold in Southern restaurants. By the roadsides, you will often see advertised alligator jerky as well as the famous boiled peanuts.
(p) Called crawdads in Louisiana and most of the South. Boiled much like shrimp they are just as tasty and very spicy, but a bit chewy. They turn a brilliant red on being boiled.
(q) Pregnant Negro women from the South buy corn starch as a substitute for the clay they ate back home. (Reported in the Wall Street Journal back in the 80's)
(r) Skunks by our current naming. This aromatic relative of the house cat was not the first to find his (or her) way into the stomach of man. (See footnote h.)
****
Joe Wortham's Home Page , About Joe Wortham , Directory
Questions? Comments? [email protected]
You are what you eat(?)
October 6, 2001
Note from Mr. Eason:
You credit me with the authorship of "On Welsh Rabbits". It greatly
grieves me to have to point out that I did not write it; it appeared
anonymously in a 19th century humor magazine. I suspect the author
was James Crossley, who perpetrated a hoax on the editor of the early
19th-century edition of the complete works of Browne ("A Fragment on
Mummies").
Yours,
James Eason
January 15, 2002