Khokhloma
Brief Overview
Khokhloma, decoratively painted woodenware from
Color:
Khokhloma’s red, gold, and black color
combination was inspired by long-standing symbolic meanings:
Red: Long associated with the word for
beauty (“krasny”), red has been imbued with
religious (the blood of Christ, martyrdom) and national symbolism for
centuries. Red’s scarcity and cost made it highly valued as well. Folk artists
have long recognized red’s ability to intensify surrounding colors. The color's
magical presence can be attributed to its “long-wave reflection, making it seem
closer to the viewer and creating the effect of presence” (Red in Russian art
p.6) .
Black. Though icon painting generally employed
a red-white combination, the latter was impractical for rural utilitarian ware.
As an alternative, black can unite and intensify red. By using this color
combination, artists attract the viewer's focus and alter the object's
perceived closeness. Indeed, red-black’s slight light-dark contrast
quickly attracts the eye, reinforcing edge detection and spatial recognition of
three-dimensional forms. Though perceived as "background", black is
frequently used to fill in the gold background between elements (such as stems,
leaves). This intensifies the gold effect and makes the design elements appear
sharper.
Gold: In Khokhloma,
gold may either be used as background or as a silhouette upon a colored
background (usually red). When first applied, Khokhloma
artists found their artificially-created “gold effect” to be aesthetically
competitive with gold-embellished icons. Beyond having an attractive brilliance, gold has
historically symbolized heavenly spiritual light in Russian religious art.
Indeed, in earlier times, Khokhloma artists
believed that, since light was God’s first creation, gold (as symbolic of
light) should take precedence in their creation as well.
To create a gold effect, these
artists applied silver chloride to their kiln-dried ware before painting.
Afterwards, they varnished their ware with linseed oil before firing it in a
kiln. The fired varnish gives an already metallic-looking background the
appearance of gilt. As tin became more affordable, powdered tin became a
popular way to create golden khokhloma. By the
early 19th century khokhloma craftsmen began
gilding bowls entirely. More recently, powdered aluminum replaced tin as a
means to create golden Khokhoma.
Design Elements
Today, Khokhloma
is known for having several ornamental design elements: travka
(grass), kustiki (bushes), kudrina
(curl), repeechka (burdock), rhzhik (wild mushroom), pod listok
(leaves), pryanik (gingerbread), and pod fon (background). As the craft progressed, some design
elements lost favor (lozenges) as others progressed (kudrina)
among the few long-standing favorites (travka).
An early artwork motif (rhzhik) evolved to
incorporate geometric elements in its design.
Set within the bowl’s interior, it depicted a rosette radiating lines
(or grass) outward. However, artisans
soon began enclosing these rosettes with a lozenge, creating a prianik (‘gingerbread’) design. Nonetheless, khokhloma artists appear not to have embraced these
motifs as they would others.
As khokhloma
progressed, craftsmen invariably found success retaining traditional
motifs. Accordingly, they became expert at interweaving flowers and berries
among winding grasses to accentuate an article’s shape. Occasionally, other
elements, such as pomegranates, shrubs, or rosettes, are frequently incorporated.
Though geometric and non-floral designs are still employed, they're generally
small designs (stars) reserved for inexpensive items (spoons).
A common favorite, the travka
(grass design) motif is often reserved for larger khokhloma
items such as dishes, kegs, bowls or mats. Here the painter uses quick,
spontaneous-looking brush strokes to depict thick, lush (or soft, wispy) blades
of grass. By appearing parallel to each other, these blades give a frond-like
effect and help accentuate contours. (At left).
More frequently, the pod listok
(branches and leaves) motif is displayed on smaller khokhloma
ware. Occasionally incorporating travka
(grass), they're noted for displaying finely painted leaves and a variety of
realistic foliage. Here, various painting techniques are used in conjunction with hatching to give
berries and leaves a more realistic portrayal. For a vivid contrast, black
backgrounds are painted last, intruding upon the leaf’s golden edges.
For a more eye-catching appearance,
artists employ the kudrina motif. Its curly golden tendrils and thickset
leaves are assembled in wave formation to make an attractive gold border along
the bowl rim. Unlike many other motifs, creating a kudrina
motif is a highly labor-intensive process that requires detailed hatching.
Indeed, khokhloma craftsmen may find this
motif helping to double their production process (from two to four months).
Certainly, khokhloma artisans had favorite
motifs, though specializing in a market niche may have influenced in motif
selection as well. For instance, Kovernino artisans
became known for painting stylized trees containing large flowers and curling
tendrils (a drevko design). Likewise, Semionov artisans generally favored complexity in their
designs, becoming known for depicting highly detailed kudrina
patterns.
Design Background
In
Conversely, an object’s shape will
influence design perception: floral motifs placed around a vase’s middle (where
the eye first attracts) appear larger and brighter than at the tapered bottom.
Moreover, by being diffuse or concentrated, allover patterns can vary
the intensity with which the viewer perceives the object. Though hardly
trade secrets, Khokhloma artists have refined
these techniques to qualify their craftsmanship for centuries.
Pre-Production
Craftsmen employ only dry linden or birch so their work does not eventually
warp or crack. Once fully dry, the wood is ready to be shaped by a lathe. Clay
is applied to the finished product to seal the wood. Likewise, the exterior is
coated with a synthetic varnish (once boiled linseed) for protective hardening.
To ensure further protection, the khokhloma is
oven-dried before painting.
Painting Techniques
Verkhouoye: Artists employ fluid brush strokes to create a
spontaneous impression. Commonly associated with travka,
Verkouoye gives painters heavy license to
create impressionistic (energetic or relaxed) displays. This technique was
simple and suited to mass production later on.
Fonovoye: Altogether different, Fonovoye
is frequently utilized to create eye-catching ornamental borders. Highly
labor-intensive, its emergence heralded khokhloma’s
status from simple artistry to skilled craft. Artisans begin by tracing design
outlines with light brushwork before coloring the surrounding background.
Unlike Verkhouoye painting, Fonovoye emphasizes object ornament (i.e. kudrina) by creating a strong contrast between motif
and background. Accordingly, Fonovoye has
popularized gold stripes, grooves, and rings as bowl rim borders.
Design Evolution
Peter the Great’s
infatuation with western architecture indirectly benefited khokhloma.
Debarred from building magnificent palaces, Russian woodworkers found working
with decorative arts their most viable alternative. These exceptionally qualified artists raised khokhloma’s status and creative output. Indeed, their success soon supplanted
agricultural work in some areas.
Nevertheless, factory-made china and
glass began to endanger the industry by the latter half of the 19th
century. More devastating were profit-squeezing jobbers, middlemen who solely
controlled distribution and supplies for isolated craftsmen. Their behavior led
artists to work excessively long hours in order to make a livelihood (ignoring
quality in the process). The craft declined precipitously as craftsmen moved to
find alternative work in neighboring towns.
Local officials only acted to retain the craft as a means to bolster a
declining tax base.
Mass produced imitations supplanted Verkhouoye-style ware and left labor-intensive Fonovoye vessels to sell as expensive gifts. By the
1917 Revolution, khokhloma artists were
suffering a serious crisis. Soviet attempts to revitalize the craft did not
succeed until handicraft collectives, heavy state funding, and newly designed
motifs emerged in the twenties.
Though centuries old, khokhloma ware has not remained static. Rather, it
has continued to evolve, retaining its basic design while admitting motif
modifications and new technology (i.e. powdered aluminum). For instance, while the travka
(grass) motif is still popular, it has also been modified throughout time to
include wavy sprigs, leafy shrubs, and spiraling tendrils. Likewise, various
berries became commonplace once popular sentiment became known. To their
credit, artists have discarded little since khokhloma’s
traditional format emerged. Verkhouoye sample at left.
More recently, khokhloma
artists have expanded their color palette. Employing an imaginative blend of non-primary
colors, their designs challenge the viewer to acknowledge khokhloma’s
traditional motifs. Beyond design changes, khokhloma
artists are bringing their work to non-traditional objects such as tables,
chairs, box miniatures, and even kovshi. These developments have sparked renewed
interest among dispassionate viewers and long-time admirers.
Artists:
Fyodor Krasilnikov ; Stepan Yuzikov
; Fedor Bedin; Stepan Yuzikov; Podogov brothers
.
Also
Busova, A.; Denisova,
N.; Dospalva, Y. ;Ivanova,
N.; Kiyova, Z.; Lushina,
O.; Matveev, G; Salnikova,
N.; Savinova, A; Siniova,
M.; Tiukalov, A ; Veselova,
O
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Arvintsev, S. "Visions of the Invisible: The
Dual Nature of the Icon" in Gates
of Mystery: The Holy Art of Russia
Hilton, Alison. Russian Folk Art .
Kiblitsky, Joseph. "On
the Colour Red" in Red
in Russian Art .
Art Print Ltd. 1997.
Ovsyannikov, Y. Russian
Folk Arts and Crafts. 1968
Pronin, Alexander. Russian Folk Arts .
Barnes. 1975
The Art of Khokhloma 1976
Yemelyanova, Tatyana. Khokhloma Folk
Painting .
Aurora Art.