Theodor Adorno and the Non-Identicality of Popular Music. Section 2

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        The social dynamic of popular music, in the past, has come under attack.  But because popular music was deemed inferior to other musics, the explanation of its popularity must come from its social context.  

        During the past century, cultural topics have been increasingly included in the canon of social science and humanities.  What was once primarily left to anthropology's faraway lands, studying the meaning behind cultural practices, such as music, art, and dance, are now volumes of texts on Western cultural practice and signification. 

Within this body, lies the study of popular music.  As popular musics became a mass distributed their impact, influence, and notoriety spread.  National genres of popular music and specifically of youth oriented music have taken center stage.  Jazz, rock-and-roll, punk and many others were catalogued, recorded, and analyzed.  Youth subculture, style, and music have all been explored as new musics emerge and old musics are remembered.[1]

All the while, the figure of Adorno lurks in the shadows.  While rarely the central focus of work, Adorno's conception of the culture industry and the domination of music over its listener remains an issue to be addressed.  That is because Adorno claims are against all popular music; against the structure of popular music itself. The music industry makes no secret of its motives.  In the quest for profit, the high-volume sales of a popular artist profit myriad individuals and corporations, allowing labels and international music conglomerates alike to expand their operations and increase productivity.  Adorno looked at the way the music industry operated in the 1930's and 40's combined with his experiences with Fascism and the research of the Frankfurt School on authoritarianism, predicted a grim future for popular music.

Popular music study's contention that Adorno's view of popular music is totalizing, reflects an emphasis not only on the social dynamic of music but on the problems the study of the popular music has had establishing itself.  Concurrent with this dilemma is one concerning autonomy.  Musical economy has long been the dividing line between serious and popular musics, were serious music was all musics considered worthy of study development and popular music was the vulgar music of the people.

In fact the definition of popular music was for some time based on its difference from serious music or music that is traditionally studied by music scholars.  For example, the Cambridge Companion to Music states that “popular music can be said to comprise all the various kinds of music that might not be considered under the general heading of  ‘serious’ or ‘classical’ music” and that, “popular music--music that is written for and sold to a wide audience who can't enjoy it without being musically educated--is with such obvious exceptions as a genuine folk music and some forms of jazz written with the hope of financial gain,” whereas,  “much ‘serious’ music today is written in an experimental spirit and can only be appreciated by an audience which has considerable awareness of the finer points of music; it therefore frequently requires financial support from the state and other benefactors and has no expectation of profit.[2]" 

A central concern of popular music study is the construction of music as autonomous. Autonomous music is a whole in itself and is understood to be separate, isolated from outside domination.  Meaning, in autonomous music comes from within and interpretations and contextualization can only occur with deference to its internal characteristics. Adorno and many other modern scholars have characterized music by its essential or interior qualities.  Popular musicology attempts to provide a response to the assertion of autonomy music for example, “the  ‘meaning’ of music describes, in short, not just an interpretive but a social process: music meaning is not inherent in the text.[3] Richard Middleton points out that he has “tried to write a cultural study of music that is a study which focuses on music but refuses to isolate it.[4]” 

By separating music from essential meaning, music is opened to interpretation based on aspects of history [context] and social life [meaning].  Seeing music historically allows a holistic vision of culture, including styles of both serious and popular musics.  Examining the social components of music, such as race, class, gender, reception and production, encourages a multi-layered understanding of music that can extend beyond the direct relations of mass production and consumption.

Limiting musical autonomy causes in part a rejection of modernist thinking such as the Frankfurt School.  To be sure, post-modern notions of multiplicity in meaning and seemingly endless layers of interpretation conflict with Adorno's rigid approach to popular music.  However, as the disagreement between Lukacs and Adorno suggests, the redemption of the culture industry might not be in rearranging the terms of description and including mitigating social context but in the culture industry itself.  That is the structure of the music industry depends not on the cyclic reinvention of musical novelty but on the participation and inclusion of originality and innovation.  The how-to book shows us the presence of a system that seeks out and except creative talent, while insisting it follow a certain form.  Within the capitalist system exists not a loophole or a challenge by regulated acceptance of the non-identical. 

Why is this important? Adorno cites the culture industry as dominating because of various and contestable reasons.  Though his specific analysis is disputed, the core of his argument, that the music industry is ubiquitous, motivated by profit, and systematic continues to distinguish popular music as a form and a field of study.  This paper assents this part of Adorno as relevant and seeks to approach popular music as part of a cohesive system.

Alternately referred to as the music industry or the recording industry, the producers of mass market music have historically worked together.[5] Rather than attacking the relevance of the term “culture industry”, I seek to show how the music industry as a system allows non-identical musics to develop and become popular.  Thus, questioning one aspect of Adorno's thesis on the domination of popular music over the individual on the basis that regression in music is not the result of false difference in music.

Each of these points leads to a view of the culture industry as powerful and relevant but not dominating.  Though large labels release or distribute the majority of popular music they do not always have complete creative control. Rather, as agents of distribution they often are only superficially involved in developing musical content.  The music industry as a point of distribution rather than as a producer of culture is a recent phenomena.  However, talent or aspiring artists have historically existed outside of and developed by the culture industry.  The how-to books express a change in the way talent is “discovered,” and then recorded and distributed but throughout the aspiring artists remain outside with an idea or project awaiting entrance.

The “how-to” text

        How can we combine the critiques of Adorno with the how-to book industry?  On the surface, these texts mirror the process of domination outlined by Adorno.  The outline offered by advice books indicates that each and every musical product is subject to a standardized process through which only the most conforming artists will be able to pass.  The how-to book provides clues and guidelines as to the expectations of those on the “inside” of the music industry.  Advice ranges from how to properly address an envelope to “what to say at your first meeting with a personal manager.[6]” I have collected numerous books staring in the late 1970’s and continuing with new publications into this year.  With a twenty-year history, it seems likely that there is a market for “how-to” books in the music industry.  What are these books saying to attract generations of customers?

    The books seem to imply that there is a code that an aspiring musician can follow in order to achieve success.  By following the structure established by the culture industry, musicians are subsumed under the generalizing protocols of the industry.  Adorno, himself, uses a songwriting “how-to” book to exemplify the immutable structure of popular songs.   However, there is more going on in these books than merely tips for aspiring musicians’ business practices.  There is a structure firmly in place in the books, but one has to question “what kind of structure is it?”  Do the guidelines affect the content of the music, or merely the form in which it is received by the industry?  Who are these aspiring musicians, who are assumed in the books to already have at least the idea for songs, music, or bands if not fledgling projects?  I seek to use these books to suggest that their presentation of the structure of the music industry allows for the entrance of musicians outside the industry, and furthermore, that the musical product presented in the texts suffers from pseudo-identicality rather than pseudo-differentiation.  That is, that though the packaging and presentation of music is codified, the content is free to and encouraged to be unique.

I collected 15 texts on the music industry that fall into three categories: analysis, description, and advice.   I will focus on those that offer advice, but to provide context, I will briefly describe each type.  Books that offer an analysis interpret the music industry in view of historical, social and economic contexts.  Pennies from Heaven describes the saga of the ASCAP and BMI conflict, the domination of record conglomerate and the upstart of independent companies.  Recording the drama and conflict of the history of the music industry, it provides viewpoint and analysis of the operation of music, usually taking a critical position on corporate influences.

Unlike the arguments presented by an analysis of the music industry, books that provide a description of the music industry straightforwardly discuss the structure and function of different aspects of the music business.[7]   Usually they offer historical background and then focus on discussions of contracts, the function of individuals, and technology. Emphasis in these books is on legal and business procedures, within the music industry rather than entrance by artists in to the music business.  Though they describe in detail many of the things discussed in advice books they do not offer any hints or insider information.  The books are generally targeted at people who are already involved in the music industry in some way and are looking to fine-tune their knowledge of its operation. 

Lastly, how-to texts make up the subject matter of this study.  These texts are made to provide insights for their reader on how to enter the music industry. They offer advice on multiple aspects of gaining entrance to the music industry including how to make contacts and how to produce quality recordings.  They address musicians, songwriters, and other aspiring artists as well as music professionals such as sound engineering and record production.  Before I begin an analysis of the implications of these texts on non-identicality I will present a short discussion of their holistic content and similarities.  

Like books that describe the music industry, how-to books outline structures and codes.  The books dedicate chapters to providing legal advice about contracts, royalties, and publishing, as well as, business planning on developing a team for your music project consisting of an agent, manager, a lawyer, and producers.  How-to books are surprisingly similar in their content and often repeat the same adages of advice, strategies, and warnings.  Since I am discussing a genre of text through example, I will refer generally to how-to books and specifically to individual texts. How-to books, rather than simply providing a description, have an added element that makes them especially interesting.  Advice on how to be successful offers an opportunity for outsiders to join the music business, becoming a part of the process that encompasses successful musicians, songwriters and music professionals.

Each book is geared toward the goal of success in the music business.  Success is variably determined and can be signing a recording contract with a major label or selling large amounts of recordings or earning a living from a music related career.

The texts contained two approaches to entering into the music business.  One, the more traditional, stresses the need for the courtship of and acceptance by major labels. It describes a process of producing and distributing a demo tape to major record labels through agents, music lawyers, or A&R personnel.  The second reflects a new approach to the music business. Often referred to as the ‘new music business,’ these books stress self-production and promotion, the creation and promotion of recorded material by artists and independent labels.  In this case the label is most useful in providing national and international distribution.  Whereas before, the labels handled much of the product development aspects of a band or artist, today musicians and artists are expected to produce their own image and provide proof for its profitability prior to entering into a label contract, which suggests profitability remains a central industry concern.  However, Adorno’s claims as to the homogenous character of music production in regards to style and content seem less valid.  Major labels today appear only to produce music which has already proven itself at least minimally popular,

The texts cover the basics of the music business in roughly four different categories: recording, publishing,  performance or live music, and television/film and other commercial uses for music.  The recording industry dominates the texts.  It is the production, distribution and promotion of recorded music material.  Long controlled by multinational labels, the recording industry has experienced increasing involvement by independent labels producers and managers as well as unsigned artists.  Originally, labels took on the majority of responsibility for product and artist development, but later came to emphasize self-production and sign musicians who already had a popular following. 

The primary functions of the how-to text are to describe the structure of the music business and to give advice. To further these illustrate points I will introduce three main concepts shared in the texts: an emphasis on originality and developing a plan as well as the characterization of the reader by the authors.  I have divided the main strands of advice given in these texts into four categories.  These tropes arise in multiple texts and in varied ways:

A.     Be realistic.  You'll have to work harder to enter the music business. Do not be discouraged by rejection.  

B.     Be smart and make a plan.  It is important to make good business decisions early. 

C.     Surround yourself with people you trust.  Develop a network of contacts.   Always be persistent and polite. Be careful of people who try to take advantage of your naivety.

D.     Be creative, unique, true to yourself, original and talented. 

The advice given in this list is not particularly specific to music, rather a general, common sense view of tackling a difficult project.  The texts share many similar advice topics such as discussing the importance of coming up with an original band name and the subtleties and protocols involving a demo tape.  They often lament the fact that too many people want to be overnight successes in the music business, and that music people often lack focus.  Perhaps the most important service the books provide is in educating individuals in order to manage the obstacles presented by the music industry. One authored admitted, "everyone knows there's a lot of fantasy floating around the music business[8]" and that his book would shed light on an industry where, “there is a small and somewhat nasty faction of the music industry that prefers to keep artist i

None of the authors make any promises that their text will offer an easier time through the music industry, rather, they stressed that their advice would make the reader’s experience with the music industry more informed.  While success cannot be guaranteed, one author promises, “I can guarantee you learn enough about your strengths and weaknesses to better your chances significantly.[9]" Every book stresses the fact that no matter how well one followed the protocol, the most important key to making it in the music business, is to provide original and heartfelt music. The plan is an important benefit offered by the how-to text.  Since musicians are believed to lack focus, how-to books often concentrate on, “laying out a sample plan for success, describing all the details that a company that planned and providing you with the central keys to create your own individualized plan for success.[10]” While having a plan is useful, “there is no one plan that can encompass every one needs and no matter how many steps or clues I give you, your progress ultimately depends on you.[11]"  The plan offered by the how-to text is more informed by the author’s specific insider knowledge.  Even though success cannot be assumed the author still has something useful to teach the reader: “I'm not going to pretend that a uniform success formula exists, or that I have all the answers.  But I do think it's time that someone with an insider's on the understanding of the business got to the core of what it actually takes to develop a successful career in the music industry.[12]"

Of course having a plan is not enough to begin, aspiring individuals must also have a product or talent to complement their networking achievements.  Contacts and a plan may open doors, " but once the doors are open and you've got to have something amazing to shove inside.[13]”  The how-to text " will not help you write songs, play, saying the, or perform better,[14]” but it will offer air advice to best use existing skills.

The needed element, according to the texts is originality, which separates successful artists from the masses of aspiring artists.  For example, when can hear " unsigned acts and talent to are far and away superior to the top-charting artists of the date.  But are they as original as those artists, as a visionary, as inspired?[15]" According to Campbell, aspiring artist must be more original than currently popular music.

Though originality is important it is most useful in combination with other qualitie`s.  Making it in the New Music Business, a good example of the how-text, outlines the top-ten ingredients for a successful recording artist:

1. Originality

2.      Identification

3.  Vocals

4.  Live appearances

5.  The right image

6.  A hit record

8.  Contacts

9.  Reliability

10.    Persistence

     We can divide these ingredients into three types. Vocals, live appearances, and image are issues of performance, a subject only lightly touched on in the how-to text.  The inclusion of performance as a necessary ingredient and success reminds us that in music there are differences between the written score, the recording, and the living performance.  These differences Middleton claims are missing from Adorno's analysis.  Middleton's believes that Adorno privileges notation over performance in ascribing aesthetic quality.  Performance, here is one of many aspects in judging music.

Contacts, reliability and persistence reflect the importance of excellent interpersonal skills and networking.  As Kimpel suggests, success is the music business lies in networking and, “the most important ingredient in successful networking is being the kind of person that other people want to help succeed.[16]” The networking aspects of the how-to book seek to demonstrate the social relations that make up success in the business.  Coming in contact with the right person at the right time could mean a significant step toward in a career. This aspect is very important because if the key to “making it in the music business” is “ hard work, contacts and luck[17]” developing and utilizing a network is crucial to success, thus, large portions of the how-to platform centers around how to deal with individuals, what to say and what to wear, and stresses the importance of positive behavior in even the most frustrating times.

            Innovation is often stressed above all else in developing a career, but in these texts many aspects composition and performance ignored.  In the how-to text, no matter what kind of music is played one must follow the rules.  Whether or not ones song can be a hit cannot be determined nor explained scientifically. “Obviously the music industry cannot be treated as an exact science,[18]” but it can be systematic. Rather than mechanically producing successful songs through systematicity involves including all the elements of success, which have little to do with composition and creation. In the “how-to” text innovation is often linked to sincerity, or “being true to yourself,” aspects that seem to lead us away from domination and toward individual expression. Authors note that "originality isn't something you can get out of a bottle" and that “great artists are unique,[19]” highlighting that originality is not recognized in formulaic, dominated music. Rather, it must be a personal signature where “discovering yourself is as important to becoming a truly original artists as anything you do consciously in your music.[20]”

 However, in the one text that explicitly deals with what is a hit song, identicality rears its ugly head reminding us that though theorists may claim otherwise, a tension persists between the creative and commercial aspects of music; a tension caught up in the culture industry.  “The elements of the hit song are many and varied, and contrary to popular misconception, there is no ironclad formula.[21]”  However, most hit songs have some similar elements of a hook, a catchy or memorable portion which is repeated several times in the song, lyrics and titles that people can relate to, and melody. In true Adornian fashion Riordan comments that, “the art of writing a good melody today is creating something that is original yet easy for the ear to grasp and the mind to remember.  That's why there are similarities in both pop songs.  Most of them have a few melodic passages that are reminiscent of the other songs, but then there is a different court or melodic change, and the song goes another direction.[22]” However originality must be authentic because, “forced originality just doesn't work for very long.[23]”

Discussions of originality stress the possibilities of success, producing quality and popularity, outside the music industry.  The most important advice concerning music is that it must come authentically and emotionally from the artist.  The emphasis on original and heartfelt compositions is key to pointing to the existence of musics prior to the domination of the structure of the music industry.  "Great recording artist blend their influences into a new sound.[24]” Thus, originality is not made by mimicking popular structures but rather by the synthesis of previous compositions.  “No one has ever had a serious career imitating others or trying to guess whether record companies want.  I'll tell you a secret: what the record companies want is someone whose music is pure and true to themselves whether your music is the commercial flavor of the month or obscure.[25]” 

Riordan calls his book Making it in the New Music Business, because he believes that the recording industry has changed since the early 1990’s to include and increase in self-promotion and independence from major labels in the production of music.  He cites independent radio stations, managers, producers and a trend towards artists self-producing and distributing cds without a label and achieve a measure of success with little or no involvement by large companies. In the new music business, new technology has affected the music industry, it has caused “changes in the way talent is discovered and marketed.[26]”  Riordan claims, “the past few years have seen the emergence of a totally independent artist who oversees a mini conglomerate of their own design before they get a record deal[27]" Resulting, for artists, a business envoronment where, “you can't take anything for granted.  You can't put off any aspect of your development as an artist until after you get a record deal.[28]” Whereas, previously the record label handled content, production and marketing, artists are responsible for cultivating an image, music and following prior to pursuing distribution by major labels.  These artists write and produce their music without the help of record executives and seemingly without the direct influence of domination of the music industry. Unsurprisingly, this situation came about slowly, due to gradual shifts in the economic situation of the music industry.

In the 1950's the label handed the creative side of the record making process and sought out new artists, developed, produced, and marketed music. The recording industry that Adorno opposed was one where talent scouts sought out new artists, signed them and controlled every aspect of production from performance to song writing.  The artist had very little control. Later, labels relinquished some of the responsibility and the expense of artists.  The 1960's and 70's saw an increasing importance of managers and producers who were independent from labels.  Labels focused on promotion and distribution by manufacturing records and "getting them played on the radio and getting them into stores.[29]"

The final chapter in the development of the new music business involved the increase of independent labels and independently produced artists.  In addition, the rise of new and experimental radio stations that in the turn in music allowed to important (to the aspiring artist) things to happen: one that the public was given a chance to hear all kinds of new music" and "the public had an opportunity to choose what records they wanted to hear instead of a major label determining that for them.[30]"  Independent influence on the recording industry, as noted by Richard Middleton allowed a dissonance between conglomerate producers of music, the culture industry, and the totality of music domination.  That is, the public was given a choice of music products produced outside of what once seemed a monopoly.

It is true, as Middleton notes, that times have changed and the structure of the music industry has shifted.  The new music business allows potential artists to take increasing control over the creative production of their music.  However, the primary function of the music industry remains the same from Adorno's 1930's and 40's to the 21st century; to produce revenue.  Thus, an industry whose goal is to sell goods must adapt to changing markets.  That the public demand for music has come to include the need for independently creative work as well as formulaic music styles complement Popular music study's analysis of the diversification of music.  However the new music business even its inclusion of independence remained affected by economic concerns.  That is why the how-to book shows a duality in popular music; the goal of the artist is to make the original as well as profitable music.

The new music business appears to outline a record industry that was once under the domination of a conglomerate record labels but is now under attack from the appearance and success of independent artists as well as independent managers, as producers, and labels.  Riordan presents an optimistic appraisal of non-regressive music. For the music industry not to dominate public tastes also means that the artist is not dominated.  The independent artist’s in this scenario is free to make unique music—a promise that the text relies on.  The plan cannot work if the content of the music is determined. At least in the text the type of music that the aspiring artist plays is never mentioned.  The assumption is that whatever type of music and aspiring artists place it is dedication and an abstract sense of talent that is needed along with the knowledge the book has to offer.   As Riordan puts it, "it's a new music business, and if you've got the talent and the determination nothing can stop you but yourself.[31]"

This opportunity is one in which creativity outside the culture industry can be said to exist and also is potentially able (according to the text) to achieve success.  Rather than being written for individual somehow already involved in the music business, the how-to text specifically addresses those with aspirations but without the contacts and opportunities associated with being 'inside' the music business.  That these outsiders have access and that in the new music business they are able to self promote and distribute their products, is an acknowledgment of the individual outside the direct control of the culture industry.  More importantly, however, the how-to text provides an example of a conception of the music industry that is not a totality.  By allowing the possibility of entrance from the outside, the how-to text allows for a fissure within domination.  The attitude that the how-to texts take towards the music industry suggests that standardization can only go so far and that some point only authentic, original music will ultimately succeed.  The books describe the structure, the domination of the music industry in a promise to reader that it is avoidable.

Whether or not this assertion is fact requires empirical evidence but its suggestion lends to an awareness of the music industry as potentially but not ultimately dominating.  That is where the how-to text links with our earlier discussion of Adorno and Lukacs.  With people outside the music industry who are told by the how-to book that their success depends on planning and strategy in addition to creativity, the how-to book constructs a conception of the music industry open to critique, entrance, or circumvention.  These options are the key to presenting a case for non-identical music within the capitalist system.  That is, non-identical music is unique because it has not been standardize by the 'hit-making' machine of popular music.  Its uniqueness lies in its existence as an alternative to potentially regressive music.  In order to be unique it must come from some other source than the culture industry, but according to Adorno all popular music is a product of the culture industry and in fact even today massive, ubiquitous corporations produce much of popular music.

However, the how-to text describes alternate routes for music to enter the mass music marketplace and most importantly the existence of musics outside the industry.  Here we see music that comes from the recording industry but is not produced by it.  That is, the content or style of music is not necessarily determined by the culture industry.  Rather, as the books suggest, content and style are left up to the artist and are necessary elements of success in the form of originality.  Entrance into the music industry is difficult but it is assisted by forming a plan and following protocols.

The how-to book provides a plan and supplements it by explaining the relationships the artists will develop.  From the producer, to the manager, to the booking agent, everyone involved in the music industry has an effect on the artist.  As all whole, these relationships make up the system described in the how-to book. That the structure of the music business ultimately lead to human relationships is an important unmasking of the industry mystery.  Rather than a monolithic institution the music industry is unveiled as the interplay of social relations.  Similar to Lukacs’s hope for the unveiling of the commodity form, the how-to text seeks to revealed truths about the music industry that will enable musicians to overcome the influences of capital.

For example, one author reminds his readers, "artists who don't stand up for themselves in major companies may literally be lost.[32]" By guiding readers to the legal and business practices of the music industry, how-to books break down the music industry into understandable and manageable sections.  By giving a systematic explanation, the how-to book offers musicians a demystification of the music industry.  Artists are then supposedly able to use this knowledge to better their chances of becoming successful.  But understanding the operation of the music industry, especially that is made of contacts and individuals where, " every cog in the system is important and should be treated accordingly,[33]" for the artist is given the tools to realize the structure of what Adorno claims is a dominating system, and thus overcome it.  Like the proletarian class to realizes its place as the subject and object of history the aspiring artist ( the reader constructed in the text) is able to realize her place in the process of popular music.  By gaining entrance into the music business and achieving success, the artist has entered from the outside into a restricted systems.  And this promises how the how-to books allow for non-identical music.  That the how-to book constructs a scenario of potential entrance into the music industry as well as provides an explanation of the particulars of that industry, creates a situation, within the text, where artists are able to overcome domination, produce non-identical music, and still become successful.  Reminding readers of the duality of music production, originality and profitability, allows the artists utilize both and producing non-identical, original and likable music. 

That the music industry has changed and social context is important ascribing meaning to popular music is still relevant.  The new music business in the how-to text is a product of decades of industry changes.  However, it remains implicit in the how-to book that even though the type of music and artist plays is irrelevant, its ulitmate goal is to be popular.  In order to create popular music, the how-to text advises, it must be original.  Requiring originality, the how-to text also requires non-identicality, and because the artist is able to challenge the domination of the music industry due to the insider knowledge provided by the text, non-identical music is possible. 

However, what role the how-to books play in the music industry is undetermined.  That is, how many readers achieve success? The books in themselves are a separate market than the music industry.  They cater to readers who want to know secrets to achieving success in a desirable and exclusive field.  Here, knowledge is the commodity, but this knowledge is aimed at unveiling the commodification of music, thus allowing creativity and commerce to coexist.

Those who seek to make music and become successful are promised that though entrance is difficult, it is possible.  This promise alone could mean the possibility of non-identical music by giving space to resistance and rejection for those outside of the culture industry and by showing that the monopoly of the recording industry, if there is one, if is being challenged by the readers of the how-to book.

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