lepanto

LEPANTO

�� In the long history of conflict between the Christian and Islamic worlds, the most pivotal naval confrontation was undoubtedly the battle of Lepanto. To understand why, we must look at the events leading up to the battle, as well as its consequences. How was such a stunning upset possible, and what role did the different technologies and tactics of the opposing fleets play? To fully realize why Lepanto is so important we must first realize the critical state of the world at this time.

�� The 16th Century was a period of vicious religious conflict, not only between Christians and Muslims, but also among Christians themselves between Catholics and Protestants. This division in Europe worked greatly to the advantage of Islam. Since the time of the Crusades the Catholic Church had been the nemesis of Islamic expansion. Now, Christians were fighting Christians, and Protestant hatred of Catholicism ran so deep that even the Muslim Turks were deemed preferable to the Bishop of Rome[i].

�� The power of the Ottoman Empire was spreading rapidly at the expense of Christendom. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire were swept away and the Muslim armies marched into Europe, absorbing the entire Greek peninsula and onward north all the way to the gates of Vienna. The Turks invaded the Venetian island of Cyprus and threatened Venice, Naples and even the Eternal City of Rome herself[ii].

�� The Ottoman Sultan claimed titles such as "Marcher Lord of the Horizon" and "Rock That Bestrides the Continents", all of which even England's proud Elizabeth I was quick to use when trying to obtain the benefits of Turkish trade relations. There were no "separated brethren" among the Christians of Europe, the Protestants of northern Europe were quite content to allow the Muslims to help in crushing Catholicism between them as expressed by the Dutch slogan, "Liever Turk dans Paus"? ('Better Turk than Pope')[iii].

�� Muslim expansion had been a problem for sometime, but a formal Mediterranean alliance against them had been slow to materialize. It was, finally, the invasion of Cyprus, which prompted the Doge of Venice to call upon the only man in Europe capable of organizing an international crusade against the Muslims: the Pope. Fortunately for the Venetians, the Pope was St. Pius V, a pontiff tailor-made to the task at hand, both counter-reformation and crusading against Islam[iv].

�� St Pius V was zealous in every sense of the word. He was opposed to all luxury and extravagance (being a former Dominican monk), demanded simplicity and moral virtue as well as placing Church orthodoxy ahead of all political considerations. He was also committed to stamping out Protestantism and anyone who threatened the Church. He was a Pope of crusades against the heathen and inquisitions against the dissenter. When writing to King Philip II of Spain on the subject of heretics, he said, "never give in; never show mercy; get rid of the heretics; get rid of those who resist"[v].

�� The need for such a firm stand had clearly come. In 1560 a Turkish fleet under Grand Admiral Piali Pasha inflicted an embarrassing defeat on the forces of Spain, Naples and the Knights of Malta at Djerba in which the Neapolitan and Sicilian generals were captured[vi]. Following up, a massive siege against Malta itself was repulsed but only at extreme cost, ruining the Knights as a major Mediterranean military force[vii]. Clearly, it was time to take action.

�� In 1566 Pope St Pius V began forming "The Holy League" in order, "to act against the Ottoman power and for all Christian princes to fight and exterminate them". Eventually, the Papacy and Venice were joined by Spain, Milan, Sardinia, Naples, Sicily, Tuscany, Ferrara, Parma, Mantua, Urbino and Genoa[viii]. Spain, Venice and Rome were the key members of this alliance, solemnized in the Vatican on May 25, 1571. Each had unique goals they hoped to accomplish by joining. Venice was mostly concerned with the recovery of Cyprus, King Philip looked westward, hoping to wipe out the Barbary pirates in north Africa, while the Pope was committed, not just to driving every Muslim out of the Mediterranean, but from Constantinople as well[ix].

�� Naturally, there were attempts to expand the league even further, but divisions and rivalry even among the Latin countries prevented it. France, for example, eager to take any opportunity to weaken the Hapsburgs, refused to join the alliance and was even openly friendly with the Turks[x]. However, this ultimately proved less significant than many thought since the Ottoman offensive was to be directed at Venice rather than Spain, which decision was due primarily to the problem of naval technology[xi].

�� Unlike other theaters of naval warfare, the Mediterranean was still dominated by the war galley, a style of ship which had consistently grown more powerful and heavily armed while also increasingly difficult to crew, supply and operate with any strategic mobility[xii]. It is unknown exactly when naval artillery began to be placed on galleys, but by the time of Lepanto the technology had developed to arm warships with bombards, large, heavy cannon constructed from a variety of materials which were mounted in fixed positions along the galley?s centerline. It is essential to note however, that the Muslims were much slower to arm their ships with artillery, and even then, it was often in the form of light swivel guns rather than bombards[xiii]. Moreover, to operate a galley required a great many soldiers, sailors and oarsmen and were limited by the amount of supplies they could carry to a relatively short range. All of these things played a role in the Turkish decision to concentrate on the waters closer to home[xiv].

�� In the Christian fleet, the honor of command fell to Don John of Austria, the half brother of King Philip II, who had been created "General of the Sea" by Philip in 1568[xv]. This appointment was to prove crucial in the upcoming battle. When comparing the two opposing fleets, it may seem that Don John was the only real advantage the forces of the Holy League possessed.

�� The combined Christian fleet consisted of about 206 galleys, 6 galeasses, 100 support ships and 80 brigantines compared to a Turkish fleet of 230 galleys of superior speed and agility[xvi]. The combined fleet of the Holy League, while fewer in numbers, did have some advantages over the Turks. Less than half of the Turkish galleys were actually under the firm control of Ali Pasha, the Ottoman fleet commander. The majority of ships were under the effective command of King Euldj?Ali (Uluch Ali) of Algeria who would have rather stuck to the more profitable campaign of merchant piracy and whose men actually pleaded with him to abandon the enterprise[xvii].

�� In contrast, the Christian command was firmly united and fully convinced that they were fighting on the side of God against the heathen. The commanders were all experienced and skillful veterans. Don John himself had been at sea for the last four years against the Muslim pirates harassing Spanish shipping. They were firmly united and zealously committed[xviii]. Don John was also soberly aware of the fact that his armada represented a fortune in Spanish expenditures for which he was responsible, and he was facing an enemy many of the time thought to be invincible on the water[xix].

�� It was, to be sure, a holy war each side was sailing into. The Turks were still glowing with pride at seizing the capitol of the old Eastern Roman Empire, now they were determined to take Rome itself. There was no greater symbolic prize to the Muslims than Rome, the headquarters of Christianity[xx]. The Christian fleet also took care to prepare their souls for battle. The men fasted and went ashore by companies in Messina to be confessed and absolved. When they put to sea a papal nuncio stood at the mouth of the harbor to bless them as they passed[xxi]. Don John himself fasted for three days and in Rome, the Pope called on the citizenry to pray the rosary for the victory of the fleet[xxii].

�� The two fleets met at Lepanto on October 7, 1571. Ali Pasha, the Turkish fleet commander, had withdrawn there after making an unsuccessful attack on a fortress on Corfu[xxiii]. The Christian fleet came onto the scene via the sea lane between the islands of Khoutsilaris and Oxia with the Turks drawn up in a crescent formation and the slower Christian ships waiting to receive them[xxiv]. As they approached, Don John held up a crucifix and said to his men, "Do you now humble the pride of the enemy and win glory in this holy fight. Live or die, be conquerors; if you die, you go to Heaven"[xxv].

�� Thus far the winds had been favoring the Turks, however it suddenly shifted to the west, favoring the Christians. Among the Spanish galleys were a number of Jesuits, and on the Venetian ships Franciscans, who assured the men this was the hand of God changing the wind to favor their victory[xxvi]. The Venetians were soon met by the first Turkish ships, whose shallower draft allowed them to attack on the flank near a number of sandbars, but which also had the effect of breaking up their formation[xxvii].

�� At this point, however, the superiority of the modern artillery on the Christian fleet had already come into play. The center squadron of the Christian fleet had opened fire on the Turks at a distance and prevented any Turkish ships from approaching them, sinking a number even before the initial attack on the southern flank was made. It was an unfortunate fact that many of the men on the Turkish fleet were Christians themselves, who had been captured and were kept as slaves to man the oars. Hoping to encourage them, Ali Pasha said to them, "If I win the battle, I promise you your liberty. If the day is yours, then God has given it to you"[xxviii].

�� In fact, Ali had already made a major mistake, which some officers had warned him about. Refusing to stay near the coast and draw the Christians into the fire of the shore batteries, Ali had insisted on deploying all of his ships as the Sultan had commanded. This gave him a considerable numerical superiority, but it also limited his ability to maneuver. However, some progress was being made. Uluch Ali, though failing to break through the squadron of Andrea Doria on the right, had drifted north and worked himself in between the Christian center and right flank[xxix].

�� The focus of this attack happened to fall on the Maltese contingent, who were soon enveloped by Turkish ships and decimated by cannon and small arms fire. The hapless Knights of Malta, who had already suffered heavily at the hands of the Turks were thoroughly massacred in what would be the most stunning loss for the Holy League[xxx]. During these close quarter clashes, the naval aspect of the battle of Lepanto all but ceased and the contest came to resemble more of a land action.

�� During this time, even at sea, edged weapons continued to be the dominant force on any battlefield, on land or sea. Firearms could be advantageous in certain situations, but it was still shock power that won battles, and on average, in this early stage of firearms development, traditional weapons often proved superior to their more innovative counterparts. Canon was important at a distance, but during boarding action it was cold steel that carried the day[xxxi].

�� Due to the limitations of space aboard a Renaissance galley, and the need for agility during boarding actions, armor was not so widespread and shortened pole arms in the form of halberds and boarding pikes were used by Christian and Turk alike. The Spanish tended to carry the most armor and use the heaviest weapons, such as Don John's own two-handed sword, while the Turks tended to be more lightweight in both armor and edged weapons. In the area of shock value the Knights of Malta came in first, with more fighting men per galley and each more heavily armed and armored than any other force, followed by the galleys of Spain and the Papal States in second place[xxxii].

�� The Ottoman Turks tended to favor the composite bow, but firearms were more widespread among the Janissaries and other elite troops. The Spanish, by contrast, were leaders in the development and use of gunpowder weapons, almost replacing the crossbow with the more powerful arquebus. Incidentally, the crossbow, which had first allowed a common man to unseat a knight, had been banned by the Church?except in battles against the infidel Muslims. However, both the crossbow and arquebus were cheap, powerful and easy for any unskilled soldier to make deadly use of[xxxiii].

�� Although firearms were used with deadly efficiency by the Islamic forces, the composite bow was a much more common weapon in the Ottoman than the Christian fleet. The bow had a number of advantages as well as disadvantages. In terms of weight, rate of fire, range, accuracy and hitting power it was superior to every other missile weapon on land or sea. However, this depended on it being in the hands of an expert as it took a very strong and highly trained archer to make the weapon show its maximum potential. It was also a much more delicate weapon than the simple and rugged arquebus, particularly at sea where the damp air could have serious side effects[xxxiv]. All of this was to contribute to the outcome of the battle.

�� Hours into the battle, it was still Andrea Doria and his mixed squadron of Papal and Genoese galleys on the right flank, confronted by Uluch Ali, who was in the greatest peril. On the left, the Venetians of Agostino Barbarigo were also under heavy attack by Mahomet Sirocco, who had an advantage in his greater knowledge of the terrain. Fearful of running aground, Barbarigo kept his distance from Cape Scrophia, while Sirocco hugged the rocks and managed to work his way around the Christian left. The two sides locked together in hand to hand combat, the Venetian flagship itself being boarded, captured and then recaptured twice. By noon, both fleets were entangled all along the line[xxxv].

�� Uluch Ali was still making progress against Doria?s squadron on the right. The� Maltese ship Capitana had been captured, and the commander, Pietro Giustiniani, the Prior of the Order of St John was riddled with arrows[xxxvi]. At this vital juncture, Don John unleashed his reserve squadron under Captain-General Alvaro de Baz�n, Marquess of Santa Cruz who had previously been hidden from view[xxxvii]. He crashed into the Turkish squadron, which had already been weakened by heavy fighting. Here the battle began to turn as Uluch Ali, doubtful about the endeavor from the start, fled from the battle along with his 30 surviving ships, leaving the rest of his comrades to their fate[xxxviii].

�� Losses had been extremely heavy, and the fact that the Christian forces were able to hold the flank against the much more numerous forces of Uluch Ali is a credit to their discipline and morale. Don John himself stood within sight in the thick of battle to encourage his men and called on them to remember the atrocities committed at Corfu prior to the battle. With his large number of support ships he was also able to deliver reinforcements in needed areas and evacuate the sick and wounded. One soldier onboard La Marchesa who refused to be evacuated was the future author Miguel de Cervantes[xxxix].

�� It was though, in the center, where the opposing fleet commanders faced each other, that the battle was ultimately decided. Before the shooting started, each flagship took care that both God and Allah would be present for battle. The Turkish flagship Sultana flew a Sufi standard taken from Baghdad by Suleiman the Magnificent heavily embroidered with quotations from the Koran, the names of Mohammed and his successors, among which were carefully inserted the name of the founder of the Othman dynasty. The Christian flagship La Real displayed a large crucifix on the main masthead over their own standard, a gift from the Holy Father, which displayed the crucified Christ above the Papal, Venetian and Spanish arms. On the Christian side, horns signaled the men to kneel for absolution, while on the Muslim side soldiers and sailors bowed prostrate in prayer, assured of eternal pleasure should they fall in battle[xl].

�� The Turkish flagship ended these religious ceremonies with a blank shot to open the battle for the center of the 'field'. However, these were not ordinary galleys the Turks were up against, as the center was where Don John had concentrated his force of galleasses[xli]. The galleass was, in short, the most powerful type of oared ship afloat. In fact, it had been built as an attempt to show that an oared galley could be the equal of the sailing ships gaining prominence in the Atlantic. They carried three masts, were heavily armed and constructed so as to be of maximum effectiveness in repelling boarders[xlii].

�� The Christian galleasses opened up a powerful salvo that broke up the Turkish formation and caused enough smoke to nullify the Turkish archers who outranged the Christian arquebusiers[xliii]. The opposing fleets, and flagships, were soon close enough to engage in hand to hand combat, and the supreme commanders were in no way removed from the danger. Ali Pasha, noted for his archery prowess, stood calmly with bow and arrow, killing Spaniard after Spaniard with efficient accuracy. Likewise, Don John fought off boarders with his massive sword alongside the rest of his men[xliv].

�� It was vicious fighting in every quarter to be sure. On the left flank, Barbarigo was killed at the hands of a Turkish archer, while his opponent, Mahomet Sirocco, though badly wounded, survived the sinking of his ship only to be rescued by Christians and immediately beheaded[xlv]. The situation for the Turks in the center was no better, and quickly going from bad to worse. Prior to the battle, Don John had ordered the heavy iron beaks, used for ramming, removed from his ships. It was a wise decision, as the upturned rams would have prevented the centerline guns from being of maximum use against the lower sailing Turkish galleys[xlvi].

�� In this close quarters combat, the superior skill of the Christian soldiers carried the day. The Turks may have been the most feared force on the Mediterranean, but throughout Europe it was the Spanish infantryman who had the reputation for experience and steadiness under fire. The well protected Spanish arquebusiers decimated the Turkish ranks for some time before Don John gave the order to board the Sultana. To the Turks credit, two attacks were repulsed before the Spanish succeeded in boarding the ship. The wounded Ali Pasha tried to bribe his attackers into sparing his life, but to no avail. Even the crystal ball he carried containing Mohammed?s right canine could not save him. He was beheaded and, contrary to Don John?s orders, had his head mounted on the prow of his ship[xlvii]. Soon after, it was all over.

�� Seeing the Christian standard flying from their own flagship, the surviving Turkish ships retreated. At this same time, hundreds of miles away in Rome, Pope Pius V was talking to his treasurer about financial matters when he suddenly stopped, gazed out the window for a moment and then said, "Go with God. This is not the time for business, but to give thanks to Jesus Christ, for our fleet has just conquered." It was a costly victory, but the Muslims would never again pose a serious naval threat to Europe[xlviii].

�� The only Turkish forces to escape were the 30 galleys of Uluch Ali who had fled before the battle was over. Ali was later promoted to commander of the Turkish fleet and he immediately set to work building a new force of 2,000 galleys which allowed the Muslims to at least retain control of Greece[xlix]. Lepanto had been the century's most spectacular victory for Christendom, yet the alliance which enabled it could not last. Venice was fighting to restore commerce more than for religious devotion and in 1571 signed a separate peace with the Turks, recognizing their rule over Cyprus. The irony that this island's seizure had been at the root of the league's formation was not lost on Philip II, though it caused consternation in Rome[l]. Divisions among the Christian powers ensured there would be no further concerted efforts on the part of the Holy League and when St Pius V died in 1573 the alliance soon collapsed[li].

�� The effects of Lepanto were immediately psychological ones. Hearing of the defeat of the Turkish fleet, and fearing the loss of Cyprus, Grand Vizier Sokullu Mehmet Pasha cried, ?The Christians have singed my beard, but I have lopped off an arm. My beard will grow back. The arm will not.? The Turkish fleet never fully recovered from the battle, though they still had fight left in them, but it became clear that the era of the galley was firmly at an end[lii].

�� For the Christians, Lepanto was an encouraging victory whose memory is still invoked to this day. In thanks to the Virgin Mary Pope St Pius V established October 7 as the Feast of Our Lady of Victory, which Pope Gregory XIII later moved to the first Sunday of October and renamed the Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary[liii]. This devotion is most often practiced today by pro-life activists within the Church, hoping to obtain a political victory on par with the military success of Lepanto.

�� In the end, we can see how a number of factors worked together to bring about the success of the Holy League and the defeat of the Ottoman Turks. The Christians were more firmly united and motivated, possessed troops and commanders whose skill and weaponry made up for their numerical shortage. Although the Turkish ships were mostly of superior quality, the Christian naval artillery was able to decimate them at a much greater distance and to great effect at close range thanks to the foresight of Don John. The failure of the Holy League to follow up on their success limited the scope the victory could have given them, but there can be no doubt that the battle of Lepanto turned the tide of the naval war between Christianity and Islam in the Christians' favor

[i] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 23.

[ii] Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003), 7.

[iii] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 23.

[iv] Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003), 9.

[v]� Rendina, Claudio, The Popes (Isle of Man: Pharos Publications ltd., 2002), 471-473.

[vi] Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 96.

[vii] Ibid., 100-101.

[viii] Ibid., 101-102.

[ix] Grierson, Edward, King of Two Worlds (New York: G.P. Putnam?s Sons, 1974), 127.

[x] Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 102.

[xi] Guilmartin Jr, John Francis, Gunpowder & Galleys (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 235.

[xii] Ibid., 235.

[xiii] Konstam, Angus, Renaissance War Galley (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002), 10-11.

[xiv] Ibid., 33.

[xv] Grierson, Edward, King of Two Worlds (New York: G.P. Putnam?s Sons, 1974), 129.

[xvi] Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 104.

[xvii] Ibid., 105.

[xviii] Ibid., 105.

[xix] Grierson, Edward, King of Two Worlds (New York: G.P. Putnam?s Sons, 1974), 129.

[xx] Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 104.

[xxi] Grierson, Edward, King of Two Worlds (New York: G.P. Putnam?s Sons, 1974), 129.

[xxii] Carroll, Anne W., Christ the King, Lord of History (Rockford: Tan Books, 1994), 250.

[xxiii] Warner, Oliver, Great Sea Battles (New York: MacMillan Co, 1963), 17.

[xxiv] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 251.

[xxv] Carroll, Anne W., Christ the King, Lord of History (Rockford: Tan Books, 1994), 250.

[xxvi] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 250.

[xxvii] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 251.

[xxviii] Warner, Oliver, Great Sea Battles (New York: MacMillan Co, 1963), 20.

[xxix] Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 107.

[xxx] Ibid., 108.

[xxxi] Guilmartin Jr, John Francis, Gunpowder & Galleys (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 151.

[xxxii] Ibid., 152.

[xxxiii] Ibid., 154.

[xxxiv] Ibid., 161.

[xxxv] Warner, Oliver, Great Sea Battles (New York: MacMillan Co, 1963), 20.

[xxxvi] Ibid., 21.

[xxxvii] Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs (London: Greenhill Books, 2003), 108.

[xxxviii] Ibid., 108.

[xxxix] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 254.

[xl] Ibid., 258.

[xli] Ibid., 258.

[xlii] Konstam, Angus, Renaissance War Galley (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2002), 18.

[xliii] Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross (London: Cassell, 2003), 259, 262.

[xliv] Ibid., 268.

[xlv] Warner, Oliver, Great Sea Battles (New York: MacMillan Co, 1963), 20.

[xlvi] Guilmartin Jr, John Francis, Gunpowder & Galleys (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 253.

[xlvii] Warner, Oliver, Great Sea Battles (New York: MacMillan Co, 1963), 21.

[xlviii] Carroll, Anne W., Christ the King, Lord of History (Rockford: Tan Books, 1994), 251.

[xlix] Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003), 88-89.

[l] Arnold, Thomas F., The Renaissance at War (London: Cassell, 2001), 150-151.

[li] Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571 (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003), 89.

[lii] Guilmartin Jr, John Francis, Gunpowder & Galleys (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 263.

[liii] Rendina, Claudio, The Popes (Isle of Man: Pharos Publications ltd., 2002), 474.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnold, Thomas F., The Renaissance at War, Cassell, London, 2001.

Bicheno, Hugh, Crescent and Cross, Cassell, London, 2003.

Carroll, Anne W., Christ the King, Lord of History, Tan Books, Rockford, 1994.

Grierson, Edward, King of Two Worlds, G.P. Putnam?s Sons, New York, 1974.

Guilmartin Jr, John Francis, Gunpowder & Galleys, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 2003.

Heers, Jacques, The Barbary Corsairs, Greenhill Books, London, 2003.

Konstam, Angus, Lepanto 1571, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2003.

Konstam, Angus, Renaissance War Galley, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2002.

Rendina, Claudio, The Popes, Pharos Publications ltd., Isle of Man, 2002.

Warner, Oliver, Great Sea Battles, MacMillan Co., New York, 1963.

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