AP Biology, Chapter 51
Behavioral Biology

SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR AND BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY
	Introduction
	Behavior results from both genes and environmental factors
		1. Explain how genes and the environment contribute to behavior. Explain what is unique 
		about innate behavior.
			a. Nature vs. nurture is a false dichotomy; both contribute
			b. For innate behavior the same behavior develops in all environments
	Innate behavior is developmentally fixed
	Classical ethology presaged an evolutionary approach to behavioral biology
		2. Define fixed action patterns and give examples in fish and humans.
			a. Fixed action pattern
				i. An unchangeable sequence, usually completed
				ii. Saves time, good for repetitive behaviors like feeding
			b. Examples
				i. Evasive behavior in moths
				ii. Infant grasping reflex in humans
				iii. Red belly triggers aggression in sticklebacks
	Behavioral ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypotheses: science as a process
		3. Describe the evolutionary basis for behavioral ecology. Explain why these adaptations 
		may result in suboptimal behavior.
			a. Expect them to behave to maximize their reproductive success
			b. Behaviors involve cost-benefit analysis
				i. Generalists exhibit a wider variety of behaviors performed suboptimally
				ii. Environmental change or sensory limitations give suboptimal behavior
		4. Explain the optimal foraging theory and illustrate it with examples.
			a. Optimal foraging = maximization of costs and benefits
			b. Examples
				i. Sunfish eat large Daphnia  when food is abundant, all sizes when 
				scarce
				ii. Bass eat crayfish and/or minnows based on many factors

LEARNING
	Learning is experience-based modification of behavior
		5. Explain how learning, maturation, and habituation influence behavior.
			a. Learning = modification of behavior from specific experience
				i. Innate behaviors can improve with practice
				ii. Ability to learn, like language, is innate
			b. Maturation = behavior changes by development of brain/nerves
			c. Habituation = loss of response to useless stimuli
	Imprinting is learning limited to a critical time period
		6. Define imprinting and explain the importance of the sensitive period. Illustrate these 
		concepts using examples from bird song.
			a. Imprinting
				i. The young innately learn who their mother is
				ii. Irreversible learning takes place within a critical period
			b. Examples
				i. Adults imprint the call notes of their chicks
				ii. Sparrows must hear songs during a critical period to normally develop 
				their own   
	Many animals learn to associate one stimulus with another
		7. Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
			a. Classical
				i. Pavlov's dog: learned association to an arbitrary stimulus
				ii. Bell+meat=saliva; eventually bell alone causes salivation
			b. Operant
				i. Trial-and-error
				ii. Learned association between behavior and reward/punishment
	Practice and exercise may explain the ultimate basis of play
		8. Define play and describe several possible adaptive advantages of this behavior.
			a. Closely associated with goal-directed behaviors
				i. Competition for mates
				ii. Hunting behaviors
			b. Bonding in social species
			c. Exercise

ANIMAL COGNITION
	Introduction
	The study of cognition connects nervous system function with behavior
	Movement from place to place often depends on internal coding of spatial 
	relationships
		9. Describe and illustrate with examples kinesis, taxis, landmarks, cognitive maps, and 
		migration.
			a. Kinesis
				i. Increase in activity rate with an environmental change
				ii. Sow bugs move more when in aa drier environment
			b. Taxis
				i. Movement toward or away from a stimulus
				ii. Earthworms move away from ammonia
			d. Cognitive maps
				i. Internal, coded representation of spatial relationships
				ii. Coordination of complex movements like in hunting
			c. Landmarks
				i. Major physical features included in a cognitive map
				ii. Digger wasps recognize features around nests
			e. Migration
				i. Regular movement over relatively long distances
				ii. Birds, caribou, butterflies
	The study of consciousness poses a unique challenge for scientists
		10. Explain the problems of defining and studying consciousness.
			a. Animals express in varied and unknown ways
			b. It may be a matter of degree or a fundamental difference 

SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIOBIOLOGY
	Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context
		11. Define sociobiology and describe the development of this field of behavior.
			a. Evolutionary theory applied to the study of social behavior
			b. Evolutionary considerations competitive and cooperative behaviors
	Competitive social behaviors often represent contests for resources
		12. Define agonistic behavior, dominance hierarchy, and territories; give examples of 
		each.
			a. Agonistic behavior
			b. Dominance hierarchy
			c. Territories
	Mating behavior relates directly to an animal's fitness
		13. Describe the advantages of courtship.
			a. Selection of a healthy, genetically worthy mate
			b. Sometimes involves demonstration of resources under control
			c. Indication of ability to make parental investment
		14. Explain how parental investment influences the different mating behaviors of males 
		and females.
			a. Often the female makes the greater parental investment
			b. She makes the choice
		15. Define and distinguish between monogamous and polygamous mating relationships 
		and between polygyny and polyandry.
			a. Monogamy: one male, one female
			b. Polygamy: one of one sex, more than one of the other sex
				i. Polygyny: one male, more than one female
				ii. Polyandry: one female, several males
		16. Describe how the certainty of paternity influences the development of mating 
		systems.
			a. Uncertain paternity 
				i. Internal fertilization: father more uncertain
				ii. Few with internal fertilization have exclusively male parental care
			b. Certain paternity
				i. External fertilization: father much more certain
				ii. Equal male and female
	Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication
		17. Describe the various modes of communication.
			a. Communication = intentional transmission of information
			b. Functions
				i. Bird song to announce territory
				ii. Firefly blinking to attract mates
			c. Modes: visual, auditory, tactile, chemical (pheromone), electrical
		18. Relate an animal's mode of communication to its lifestyle.
			a. Nocturnal animals use olfactory and auditory
			b. Flight is faster than olfactory; birds don't use scent
			c. Diurnal animals use visual and auditory
		19. Explain how honeybees communicate information about the location of sources of 
		food.
			a. In all honey bee species workers returning from foraging "dance"
			b. Orientation of the dance axis may indicate direction of food
			c. Robotic mimics convey some information in some experiments
			d. Other scientists say the dance gets attention for conveying scent
	The concept of inclusive fitness can account for most altruistic behavior
		20. Discuss why altruistic behavior might evolve.
			a. Altruism: reduction of personal fitness while increasing the fitness of another
			b. close relatives carry many of the same genes, their fitness is your fitness
		21. Relate the coefficient of relatedness to the concept of altruism.
			a. Coefficient of relatedness is a measure of inbreeding/ genetic identity
			b. Altruistic behavior should be stronger the higher the coefficient
		22. Define reciprocal altruism.
			a. Exchange of aid among unrelated individuals
			b. Some say its peculiar to humans
	Sociobiology connects evolutionary theory to human culture
		24. Describe the premise of sociobiology.
			a. Social behavior, including culture, have an evolutionary basis