Stephen van Vlack

Sookmyung Women`s University

Graduate School of TESOL

Human Learning and Cognition

Fall 2003

Questions - Week 9 Terry, Chapter 7 and Fauconnier Chapter 1

Terry (2000) Chapter 7 - Human Memory: Conceptual Approaches

1. What is Dual-Store Theory and how does it explain memory? (Mel Salta)

Dual-Store Theory is one of several models used to explain memory. It proposes a system of memory that encodes information in either short-term memory (STM) or long-term memory (LTM). In this model, information processing actually begins with what is called the sensory memory, which contains data received by any of the five senses. Information in sensory memory is retained for a very brief time unless it is recoded into short-term memory. STM is also brief, lasting only 15 to 30 seconds under lab testing conditions. It has limited capacity, codes items in verbal form, and is subject to verbal rehearsals. Moreover, STM is displaced as soon as a new item is introduced for processing, which explains why forgetting occurs easily in this store. With maintained rehearsals, however, STM can be encoded into LTM. On the other hand, long-term memory is relatively permanent and virtually limitless in capacity. It is more durable and can be encoded in modalities other than verbal, such as images, smells, touch, and emotion. Because LTM stores vast kinds of information, theorists hypothesized further subdivisions of LTM. This lead to subsequent dichotomies, such as episodic vs. semantic and explicit vs. implicit memory. Episodic memory is a personal memory system that consists of autobiographical accounts that are marked by specific temporal and contextual information. Semantic memory is a store for general knowledge, which is also referred to as dictionary or encyclopedic knowledge. This includes facts, words, language, and grammar. Episodic and semantic memories are sometimes categorized under explicit memory because knowledge in this system can be recalled, declared verbally or explicitly. Implicit memory, on the other hand, is performance that occurs independently of any conscious attempts to recall. This type of memory is not accessible to conscious verbal recall and is acquired through several means that include procedural learning and priming. Procedural learning is knowing how to do things through the acquisition of generalized rules. It involves perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills, all of which contribute to allow a person to perform a task without necessarily knowing verbally the sequence. Priming is facilitating access to information through previous exposures to the same data. This concept upholds the notion that we remember better those things that we have been previously exposed to or have been "primed" to recall. The concepts of STM and LTM in Dual-Store Theory have found evidence from different laboratory experiments and clinical studies, thus reinforcing the heuristic value of this approach to explaining human memory.

2. What variables affect the stages and the process of memory and how can they be used for better memory and learning? (Joung, Ae-sook)

Memory has been important roles in human brain works for learning. From how to get your home after class or which station you take off, to what answer should be given in exam or how to deal with the strangers on the way, all of them are connected to leaning based on memory. Then, why we can not remember that we experienced or learned when the vary important moment? This question (number 2) is about how to facilitate memory and remove deficits of memory, that is forgetting.

Terry deals with the reason why we cannot recall something, have some problem in memory and what the reason of forgetting through steps and process of memory.

First, one possible reason for forgetting can be found in stages of memory. Information that we get everyday goes through to be formed(encoding), retained in the memory system of the brain(storage) and later retrieved(retrieval). The most important fact in encoding is rehearsal which represents recall or use the of memory, just do it repeatedly. Provided more rehearsal with slower pace and immediate test, memory can be strongly formed. Once well formed, forgetting can be found in retrieval and problems in retrieval can be existed in both encoding and storage. If retrieval is facilitated by providing reminder(reinforcement) cues which is prompts to aid recall, encoding deficit can be cured. Intention according to exposure the participant to enough information. It means memory should repeatedly be exposed to prior condition. Discrimination a recent memory from those of earlier lists can be one of the reason for retrieval deficit. Encoding or retrieval deficits tell us about the importance of presentation or imput and how to deal with the activities in the classroom. If the previous exposure of the target language with rehearsal is provided enough, memory or learning can be enhanced and forgetting can be delayed.

The other reason of forgetting can be found in processing approaches of memory.

In cognitive processing, forgetting is caused by shallow processing. In contrast to shallow processing, sustained retention means deeper or more elaborate processing. According to the book, processing is co-related to rehearsal such as maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal means the passive repetition of information that is repeating something over and over, on the other hand, elaborative rehearsal represents a deeper level of processing and more active form of processing which involves meaningful analysis, comprehension of the material by using mnemonic devices, forming mental images and relating the to-be-recalled material to existing knowledge. Elaborative rehearsal lead to longer retention.

Focusing on process of the memory, method of teaching or learning should be varied for enhancing memory and longer retention by using meaningful materials and interaction.

In retrieval, we try to find out the memory of environmental conditions that presents at encoding. This is transfer-appropriate processing stated reinstatement of the cognitive operations that were used at encoding. According to the experiments, implicit and explicit test of memory are not separate system but processing is different. Implicit memory depends on a match between perceptual operations at encoding and retrieval. It is said that test of memory should follow the way of the presentation.

3. What are the basic principles of connectionist models and how do they combine to explain the process of learning and forgetting? (Joel Koeth)

Connectionist models are based on several basic principles. First, as these models were founded on the principles of neuroscience and the physical brain, there is a great reliance on the neuron and the connectivity of the brain. Furthermore, these neurons combine to form a neural network through which electronic and chemical messages can move with varying degrees of speed and efficiency. The speed and efficiency of the connections is determined by the degree of use the connection undergoes. These neurons and the neural networks they form have a resting level and activation level determined by the degree of electronic and chemical signals required to fire them. Priming is an important factor in the firing of neurons and neural networks. As electronic and chemical signals activate intended neurons, surrounding neurons (with proximity determined by pathways, not physical distance) receive signals that combine to lower the remaining amount of electricity required for activation. These models go a long way in explaining learning and forgetting. As we have stressed throughout this whole semester, connections and associations are the keys to learning. This idea is well supported by connectionist models. Additionally, forgetting can also be explained as the connections either become inefficient due to a lack of use or simply never gained the minimally required strength at the initial building stage (due to a lack of reinforcing information).

Here are several key components of Connectionist Models and key reference words related to each point-

1. Each neuronal unit can potentially have connections to many other units. *Neural networks, Connectivity, Neural Pathways*

2. The strength of connections increases with pairings of active neural units and weakens

without the activation of others. *Delta Rule*.

3. The neuronal unit or network can be activated. *Activation, Threshold Levels, Chemical and Electronic Signals*

4. Activation may require stimulation from multiple input units. *Threshold Level*.

5. Multiple layers. *Hidden layers*

Fauconnier (1997) Chapter 1 - Mappings

4. What is the underlying theory behind meaning constructions and how and why are they studied?

Meaning construction is basically the realm of what is termed cognitive linguistics. Cognitive linguistic a very different view to language that in mainstream Chomskyan linguists. Rather than believing that the structural system is the basis of the core of language itself cognitive linguists believe that meaning construction is the core to language. As such, meaning constructions forms an alternative theory of language, and one which contrasts very strongly with the Chomskyan idea of language. In a meaning construction viewpoint, language is seen as a top-down entity. All important facts about language are stored in the mental lexicon or words store. They're put there on the basis of what people here in relation to actual language use. People are therefore then able to use the language that they heard to re-create new language. Meaning is created based on the idea of propositions. People want to say something and therefore they will call up certain meaning constructions from the mental lexicon in order to make their point. In this point of view this structure is really just a kind of encasement which holds the important information. Structure is not the most important element of language.

Cognitive linguists, by necessity need to study language is somewhat different way then Chomskyan linguists, again because their focus is on meaning not on structure. They're also some similarities between the approaches. Both favor looking deeply into language and reinterpreting what are seen as surface structures. That is, there seemed the underlying structures which form the basis of language in both approaches. Meaning construction needs to be studied by showing the relationships between elements that come out in the form of language and concepts which are deeply entrenched (sometimes) in the brain. We've said before that what language really is all about is codifying the world. All the entities all the concepts of the world are also encapsulated in language so that such ideas can be presented an extended through discourse with others. The interesting thing is that these concepts are not all encoded the same way in all languages. There seemed the very strong cultural associations or we can even say interferences in how the world is encoded in different languages. This doesn't mean all languages are totally different in how the code things. Certainly is true that they're vastly more similarities and there are differences, but differences still do exist and they can cause problems for second-language or subsequent language learners.

There seems to be a strong degree of flexibility between what is stored in the brain and what actually comes out of our mouths. This is due in large part to the fact that language is really a very improper realization of the world, and is to set up of these realizations are often idiosyncratic. This is a really interesting theory for us especially in light of what we've been studying about the brain and also about memory systems and basic types of learning systems because the system fits in very neatly with all of that, whereas the Chomskyan system really doesn't. In a meaning construction viewpoint for the link between language and the brain is strong but the flexible. This means of the structure of language is constantly changing inside the brain. People are constantly creating new ways to take concepts and extend them and limit them and blend them and all different processes which allow us to create new language forms. What we're just beginning to find out is that these processes are extremely common somewhat so that they probably really are the basis of language but that they're also highly constrained which serves to preserve comprehensibility.

5. What are mental spaces and how are they structured? Give at least one example.

Mental spaces are basically locations in the brain which are set up so that we can form utterances. This is cut of an idea that cognitive linguists come up with which gives them space to be able to structure the thoughts and connections between the language and what is presumed to be in the brain itself. Maybe the simplest way of understanding this is through analogy. We can think of mental spaces as being kind of like a canvas that a painter starts out with. The canvases blankets and empty space which the painter is somehow going to fill with ideas. Mental spaces can also be likened to the tree structures that syntacticians draw much to the annoyance of their students. Sweeten the most easily think of these as being a kind of a template upon which language is built and which shows the connection between the language itself and the items in the utterances and the structure and contents of the brain. In its most basic sense language is structured based on projections or mappings. The idea behind a mapping is that concepts in the brain are somehow mapped onto each other. Explaining this in the terminology we've used to date in reading Ratey and Terry we did say that an association is formed between two concepts which were for some reason not related previously. We can identify three basic types of mappings the first of these is protection mappings. Then we have pragmatic function mappings. And finally we have what are called schema mappings. The idea behind mappings is that there are obviously several different types. Each different type works slightly differently because mappings are usually not 100 percent. We mentioned in class before the idea of feature hopping. Well, that is precisely what mappings are. Certain elements of a host item will be mapped onto a new item. In protection mappings this is exactly what happens, only certain elements of the host item are mapped. In a pragmatic function mappings the role of a certain entity is exchange for the entity itself. We can never identify items by their functions worries some other salient action that they perform and which can be used to identify them. The schema mapping we take things which are related in the schema and mapped them together.

The structure of a mental space can be fairly simple and rather flat or might actually be quite complex. Here are a couple of examples.

1.I feel tired today.

2. I should beat you like a rug.

Example one shows a fairly flat mapping area. The meaning structure is fairly straightforward. Doesn't mean that it's entirely flat because the adjuncts today is forming a certain type proposition which is limiting the construction, but there are no strong mappings here. Example 2 is much more complex. In this example we are likening a person to a rug, which is all obviously not true. In some sense, however, the person is taking on some characteristics of a rug, albeit in a very hypothetical form. In this case we have some sort of mapping going on between 'you', 'rug' and information we have about rugs in the brain. We'd also argue that we have some sort of mapping involving the modal 'should'. Looking at this we can really see how mental spaces work. Mental spaces provided framework wherein we can insert the necessary links and connections which structure are utterances from a meaning point of view. At the same time the mappings that we put onto the mental space also serve to define the mental space. They extended in shape it.

6. How do analogy and metaphor work to both define and extend conceptual systems?

Analogy and metaphor seemed to be two points at the opposite ends of a continuum of development in mappings. Again, at this point is important to mention that the whole conceptual system, the system which governs how we think and also how we formed language, is formed from a series of interconnected multivariate as mappings which exist throughout the brain. The basic idea here is that aside from different types in mappings which we mentioned above there are also different stages of mapping. The first of the stages is analogy. The last of the stages relates to metaphor. One big distinction between analogy and metaphor would be the amount of and implicit or explicit knowledge one has of the mapping. In analogy the mapping is extremely explicit and very fluid and tenuous. Metaphor, by strong contrast, is something which has become implicit in the brain, that means it is not part of declarative knowledge, and the mapping is strongly fixed inside the structure of the brain. Knowing what we now know but the brain we know that both of them are both types of associations but that metaphor would be an association which is older, and much more frequent which means that the connections are much stronger.

Fauconnier identifies six stages in the development of mappings which basely taken from the analogy state to the metaphor state. They are:

analogy and schema induction

categorization and new conceptual structure

naming and projected structure

blending and conceptual integration

motivated polysemy

diversions and extinction

We will be going over all of these in much more detail throughout the rest of the book, but for now it's important to know how they mark first and integration in blending and finally a separation and divergence of the two concepts which are mapped. Interestingly, once we know these different stages he might actually be able to posit stages of how multilingual systems develop, werein the first are linked to each other and eventually need to separate from each other. Following cognitive/connectionist ideas it would make sense for languages as entities to work according to the same type of mapping system.