Stephen van Vlack
Sookmyung Women`s University
Graduate School of TESOL
Human Learning and Cognition
Spring 2006
Week 10 Answers - Terry, Chapter 9 & Lamb, Chapter 16 & Lieberman, Introduction
1. What is encoding and what are some of the basic variables in encoding? (T9)
Encoding is your initial acquisition of information. Locating this information in storage and accessing that information is retrieval. Therefore, better encoding implies that both storage and retrieval will improve also.
Encoding is an aspect of long-term memory. It is the ability to remember what we have learned in this class, for example, long after we have graduated. There are a number of variables in encoding. Some variables are: rehearsal, imagery and meaningfulness. All rehearsal is not the same. We can make a distinction between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal. These two terms derive from the levels-of-processing approach of Craik and Lockhart (1972), which posits that information can be processed to a greater, or lesser extent or different `depths` along a continuum from shallow to deep processing.
Maintenance rehearsal is shallow processing. It is the recycling of information in order to keep it available in short-term memory or the phonological store. It is somewhat passive repetitive thinking. We use maintenance rehearsal when we must quickly remember a phone number. It is effective in short-term memory relations with uninterrupted rehearsal until the time of recall.
Elaborate rehearsal is thinking about material in such a way as to require more cognitive effort, to activate more associations, which is why elaborate rehearsal represents deep processing. For example we use elaborative rehearsal to remember a phone number by taking the time to look for meaningful patterns. At least three hypotheses have been offered to explain exactly what elaboration is: elaboration, distinctiveness, and effort. (Horton and Mills 1984). Elaboration requires rich processing in terms of meaning. For example, if you want to understand the concept `depth of processing` you will need to appreciate how this concept is related to both distinctiveness and elaboration. Unlike distinctiveness, elaboration is especially useful in enhancing memory when we want to emphasis similarity and relationships between items. In other words, elaboration helps us synthesize information (Phillips 1985).
Distinctiveness of the memory hypothesis allows that shallow processing may sometimes lead to good retention, just as long as the memory representation is distinctive. In memory recall, distinctiveness is the term describing a stimulus that is different from all other memory traces.
Cognitive effort implies that we find ways to work harder at encoding. The conclusion we come to discussing elaboration is that students will probably learn more if we find ways to make them work harder at encoding and if they are encouraged to deal with new information in terms of its meaning and semantic content. Therefore, just getting students to simply repeat materiel or spend more time looking at it is not the most efficient way they will learn and remember content. It is actually the amount of effort expended in a meaningful way that determines retention. For example the techniques used in the various mnemonic devises exemplify the use of elaborative processing. These methods require meaningful analysis of the target words, creation of distinctive representation in memory and cognitive effort.
2. What are presentation variables? (T9)
PRESENTATION VARIABLES:
Encoding is closely related to how the material is presented. Presentation variables includes (1)Serial-Position Effect, (2) Isolation Effects(von Restorff Effect) and Vividness, (3) Spacing Effects, and (4) Generation Effect.
1. Serial-Position Effect
(1) the first item: primary effect/ long-term memory
(2) the last item: recency effect/ short-term memory
(3) exception: recalling lists from the long-term memory
The sequence of events is a major factor determining recalling. The classical-position effect means that the first item and the last item in a list of words tend to be recalled better. On the basis of the dual-memory system, the first item is related to the primacy effect where the first item is typically rehearsed more and has more chance to be elaborated in the long term memory. On the other hand, the last item is related to the recency effect where the last item is first recalled form the short-term memory during the output before forgetting. Accordingly, it is very reasonable to organize a paragraph like this:
PARAGRAPH SERIAL-EFFECT A topic sentence Primacy effect
Supporting sentences
A concluding sentence Recency effect
However, there are some exceptions in the real world on the basis of the dual-memory system. When we retrieve the past events from the long-term memory, even the items are really recalled from the long-term memory, not from the short-term memory.
2. Isolation Effect(von Restorff Effect) and Vividness
(1) Isolation Effect or von Restorff Effect:
unusual item embedded in homogeneous list of items
differential processing view
retrograde amnestic effect
anterograde amnestic effect
(2) Vividness:
enhanced rehearsal distinctive memory representation of the isolated item
Isolation effect is proved in von Restorff effect study. When Helena von Restorff(1930) present a list of to-be-remembered items, she presented one item distinctively like: one unusual item embedded in homogeneous list of items. While the other words were printed in black, one word was printed in red. The one item which was presented distinctively in the context was recalled more quickly and better. This isolation effect can be explained by differential processing view during encoding. Since the one item is perceived distinctively, it tends to draw more attention, be rehearsed more and elaborated in memory. On the other hand, recalling the isolated item may be due to more distinctive during retrieval.
Other research has shown a more complex patterns in isolation effect.
The isolated item is better remembered, while the other items before and after it tends to be forgotten. Retrograde amnesic effect refers to forgetting the other items just before the distinctive item in the list of words. For example, in the list of words of Tulving(1969): dog, tree, grass, COLUMBUS, school, coffee, and soup. The enhanced recall of the distinctive item COLUMBUS prevented recalling the other words just before it. Anterograde amnesic effect refers to forgetting the other items after the distinctive item in the list of words.
The vividness effect means that if information presented deserves drawing attention, enables the participants to feel emotionally interesting, and provokes image, it tends to be better remembered. In vividness studies, the same target information is presented in more vivid or less vivid formats. Participants pay attention to the material at hand with regardless of the degree to the vividness. Attention and rehearsal are not totally different in more vivid and less vivid formats. Among several presentations, a single vivid presentation tends to be remembered better than less vivid ones. However, only single vivid presentation doesn't lead preferential recalling.
3. What are some of the learner variables that can affect encoding? (T9)
When the learner acquire new information, there are variables that make her pay attention to and that facilitate encoding: intention, incentive, interest, and arousal.
There are two kinds of learning: incidental and intentional learning. Incidental learning means to learn and retain the information without purpose and explicit attempts: remembering the article in the newspaper and the story of drama or movie. The other refers to study, learn, and rehearse with deliberate intention for encoding. Effective encoding depends more on whether the learner perform the deeper processing to remember and whether information is processed in the variety of ways. It relies less on whether learners remember with intention and explicit attempt. Because incidental learning can be as good as intentional one in recalling the information, according to the sample results from some studies.
Explicit incentives may be little effective to improve recall or cognitive processing if learners involve in learning. When the incentives for remembering are promised, it does not influence memory directly. It may develop behavior which helps to retain better. Learners can be intrinsically motivated to participate in the tasks actively, separated from incentives. In the class situation, explicit incentives can be used effectively when a teacher offers them students who are not interested in learning and recalling.
Interest affects better encoding. People are interested in a special topic or knowledge. Its interest helps people acquire new information more easily on the basis of the prior knowledge. It can also stimulate a intrinsic motivation for performing deeper processing. In the class situation, a teacher should activate their interest at the first stage of lesson to have students pay attention to learning. She can provided a special topic which students are interested in like soccer, computer game or pets. She can also make use of prior knowledge to arouse the intrinsic motivation for deeper processing.
Arousal affects what people focus or ignore. Arousal means a state of attention or ability to increase attention, alertness or anxiety based on the startle value. When information are received from the senses and thought, it can arouse us. The level of arousal is important to activate performance. In the low or high arousal level, a learner does not pay less attention to it. In its middle level, her performance may improve. The optimal levels of arousal can be determined by each individual and task. For example, experts can be produced in lower or higher arousal levels than novice. The arousal level in taking exam is different from those in classroom learning. Arousal affects learning by interacting with multiple other variables. For example, when learners are too tired and nervous, they can not pay attention to the class and encode or retain the information in the stable memory during the class.
Emotion affects better encoding. According to clutter theory, people can receive only perceived information from environment. The information can also be stayed in the brain only when they focus their attention on it. Perception and attention systems fire together to form the actual brain content. The attended information activates emotion system by passing through the amygdala. Its system tags all input according to contextual or environmental situation. Emotional value is assigned to each item according to the intensity of perception. The input with emotional value can be stored in long-term memory. The emotional arousal will lead to better encoding and remembering in long-term memory. For example, the emotional events are distinguishing and stored easily in the memory as the flashbulb memories and eyewitness memory. People talk and think about the emotional events with others. They encode the events into memory on the basis of individual value and emotion.
4. What are some of the major parts of the brain? (La16)
Going back to the summer reading and Ratey (2001) we should have no trouble identifying parts of the brain although Lamb (1999) uses different terminology. Lamb (1999) mentions three mains parts of the brain as the forebrian, the midbrian and the hindbrain. Another way of dividing up the brain is to make four units; the cortexes, the midbrain, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. This is a somewhat advantageous set up because the brain stem and the cerebellum are quite different in the roles they play (their functions) as well as in their anatomy. Both of these can be differentiated form the various structures which make up the midbrain (diencephalon., thalamus, and hypothalamus). On top of all this are the cortexes in two hemispheres.
We have an interesting division or paradox here which will hopefully make things interesting for us. Lamb (1999) focuses all his direction on the cortexes because that is where concepts are thought to be housed in strong contrast to Lieberman (2000) who focuses his attention on the important role of subcortical structures. In this case, anyway, we find Lamb being quite conservative. He is unsure of the role these subcortical regions play apart form control of some of the vocal apparatus and other physical mechanisms related to the production of speech and as such rejects other possibilities. This is unfortunate because if we follow some of the basic things he mentions earlier in the book about neuronal learning then there is no doubt that subcortical structures are involved in the forming of linguistic connections.
In fact taking this to another level we may state that these subcortical connections are part of a vast network of feedback mechanisms not just for producing the sounds themselves but for interpreting sounds as they come in. In short subcortical structures are not necessary for just producing sounds in what Lamb (1999) might call lower level neural networks, but are also invaluable for comprehending input. As I have mentioned earlier I am at odds with Lamb`s (1999) proposal that there are two different series of networks for production and reception. Now, looking at the proposals by Lieberman (2000) we can claim that it is through the incorporation of lower level structures in the brain that we can see how there is no need for both production and reception systems. The basic idea is one put forth by Moscaro (1979) (??) which claims that there are profound connections between production and reception as least as regards sounds. Simply put, we are able to discern certain sounds because we know (we feel) how they would be produced. The ability to be able to do this would require the involvement of lower level structures in the brain. That is these structures can be seen as having an important role in not only forming but also maintaining and changing cognitive representations of linguistic units (i.e, concepts).
So, by limiting his focus to just the cortical areas of the brain lamb is disappointingly falling into the same trap that so many other linguists have fallen into and primarily because of ignorance. This is to be expected by analytical/generative linguists who see things as being modular and separated, but is a problem for a cognitive linguist. At the very basis of cognitive linguistics is that learning comes initially from perception. It is perception systems which maintain language in the brain and this required a deep connection within and between both cortical (obviously) and subcortical regions of the brain.
5. How does localization in the brain relate to function? (La16)
Localization is an antiquated idea about how the brain works. It is similar to and in some ways can be equated with the idea of modularity and further back, even the ridiculous practice of phrenology. The basic idea of localization states that certain parts of the brain, and this was first determined in the cortex, tend to be used for certain functions, such as visual processing (or elements thereof) or speech perception. This was first determined by dealing with individuals who had experienced some sort of trauma to the brain (an iron rod driven clear through the frontal lobe [prefrontal cortex], in one famous example [Phineous Gage]). Researchers then made observations of deficiencies and differences in abilities in these unfortunate individuals and then after they died an autopsy was performed to ascertain which part of the brain had been injured. In this way it was determined which parts of the brain (cortex really) were responsible for which functions. This is the beginning of localization and its prevalence is still with us even into the age of computer models and brain scans.
It is hard to overestimate the power of localization. Even Lamb (1999) simply and unquestioningly states the locations of certain functions in the cortex without ever really think how any of these function in relation to the completion of complex tasks. Yes, localization is a reality. There is too much evidence to question the basic truth of it, but is it interesting? The answer to this question is a resounding, `NO`. Language is a complex endeavor, as is thought as well as movement. It is not limited to the working of a couple of language related cortical regions. So localization is true but not very interesting in that it gives us only a very small part of the entire picture. We can also see that Lamb`s idea of separate production and reception networks comes directly from his acceptance of localization as a major, if not the defining force in language. Yikes, so this is a very good example how and over reliance on certain antiquated ideas of the brain can really hurt theoretical developments.
6. What are some of the different types of neurons and why is this important? (La16)
Lamb (1999) mentions several different types of neurons which he puts into three basic groups based on their importance/numbers in the cortex. These three are pyramidal, spiny stellate and inhibitory. They differ in the nature of the connections (inhibitory versus excitatory) and in the direction and length of the connections. It is important not to make too much of this. Hawkins (2004), citing a proposal from Newcastle (1978), makes the claim that despite some differences between neurons, they all function in the same way. In fact neurons all across the central nervous system all function the same way.
7. What are the basic assumptions underlying Lieberman`s view of language and the brain? (LieInt)
What are the neural bases of human language? Lieberman views the neural bases of human language as our reptilian brain, particularly called as subcortical basal ganglia. Basal ganglia are laid between cortex and thalamus in the brain and play a significant role in organizing muscle-driven `motor` movements of the body. The basal ganglia have evolved from their primeval reptilian brain and are the key structures of the functional language system (FLS) which is distributed over many parts of the human brain. The FLS only exists in human beings and regulates the comprehension and production of spoken language. In addition, it serves as a medium for both communication and thought. Therefore, basal ganglia are the clear evidences of the evolutionary models of human language: human language has evolved from learned behaviors. In fact, Lieberman views human language as a learned behavior rather than an innate instinct. In other words, Lieberman approaches language and brain from the neurobiologist view which assumes that language has evolved from the reptilian brain constantly adapting to the environment. What it means that as human beings have evolved biologically from the archaic hominids, our brain has also evolved from the primeval reptilian brain in order to adapt to the environment which has been continuously changing.
Lieberman discredits Noam Chomsky`s modular model of human language in the brain. He disproves that there is no such thing called `language organ (or LAD/Black box)` in our brain. As an example of this, he gives a sixty-year-old male`s case. The male`s Wernicke`s area which is a component of the language organ and processes incoming speech signals into Broca`s area was totally destroyed by an accident but he still could retain language (Lieberman et al., 1992). Recent studies of the human brain also disprove the Chomskian view: When human speaks, not only single part but many parts of the brain fire simultaneously.
Consequently, Lieberman tries to find the origins of language syntax computations to brain mechanism which has evolved from the primeval reptilian brain to adapt the constantly changing environment.
8. What is the Functional Neural System and what role does it play in the development of the language system? (LieInt)
Functional Neural System is a class of neural systems that generate appropriate, timely responses to environmental challenges and opportunities. These neural systems are distributed in the brain, monitor incoming sensory information, and modify or generate goal-directed motor activity. The human FLS is a particular example of this class of functional neural systems. Since natural selection selects for timely responses to environmental challenges, functional neural systems channel sensory information directly to neural populations that mediate appropriate, timely motor responses to stimuli. Therefore, FLS also provides direct access to the primary information-auditory, visual, pragmatic and motoric-coded in a word.
Functional neural systems are a good evidence of the evolutionary mechanism of the neural bases of human language. Moreover, according to the current neurobehavioral data, both the plastic and activity-dependent nature of the specific knowledge are represented in cortical structures and the possibility that alternate neuroantomical structures are enlisted for language after brain damage. These are biological facts against the Chomskian UG model that claims human has a set of innate principles and parameters in the brain and thus is able to specify the total range of morphologic and syntactic rules. As we can see from the above example of the sixty-year-old male, the human language systems are not laid in only limited or specified area of the brain.
To conclude, functional neural systems are a class of neural systems which are constantly appropriating responses to the environmental stimuli. Functional neural systems are not innate LAD or black boxes in our brain but distributed over many parts of the brain. Therefore, functional neural systems are considered as biological facts of the evolutionary mechanism of the neural bases of human language. Functional neural systems do play important roles in monitoring incoming sensory information, modifying or generating motor behaviors, and mediating appropriate, timely responses to stimuli. Therefore, functional neural systems give the idea that the natural selection of the behavior (performance) in order to best fit to the environmental challenges also affects humans underlying knowledge (competence).
9.What are the main features of Lieberman`s model? (LieInt)
The Liebermans model which views that the neural structures of human language were adapted and modified for the biological fitness possesses four main features:
1. Human language is regulated by a neural functional language system (FLS).
According to Lieberman, human language is a learned skill, based on a FLS that is distributed over many parts of the brain. Since FLS derives from the mechanisms that imply human behavior and brain have evolved in order to adapt to the environmental challenges, human language has also evolved in accordance with the environmental changes. Therefore, FLS is not an innate, universal language organ, hypothetically called UG but dynamic, selecting appropriate resources in response to the environmental stimuli. In terms of its operation, it is again distributed rather than hierarchical. When a person is involved in a speaking task, many parts of his brain fire simultaneously rather than only one specific part of brain fires sequentially.
2. Speech is central to human language.
The FLS accesses words through ones interpretation of the acoustic signal. Therefore, ones sound patterns are strongly intertwined with ones production of language. In fact, if a learner cannot distinguish a sound from the other, for example between /f/ and /p/, he or she has a problem with pronouncing the phonetic sound.
3. The mark of evolution on the FLS is apparent.
The key structures of FLS are the subcortical basal ganglia which connect to the cortex and thalamus and regulate motor moments of the body. Since human beings are changed physically and neurobiologically in response to the environmental changes, the FLS has also evolved in accordance with the natural selection on motor control systems. Therefore, it is obvious that the FLS has evolved in accordance of the evolution of the basal ganglia which is dynamically adapting to the environmental challenges.
4. Many aspects of human language are not unique attributes of present-day humans.
The present-day apes as well as archaic hominids enable to produce a certain amount of vocal language, which means that both of them may have possessed lexical and syntactic abilities. Consequently, the language module (in Chomskian view) is not a silent characteristic of the present-day humans.
In conclusion, Lieberman tries to discredit the Chomskian view of the neural bases of human language presenting the evolutionary mechanism of the subcortical basal ganglia in the human brain and its strong interrelationship with other aspects of human behavior, cognition, and language. We, however, found that his evolutionary view of human language has some limitations that his model cannot overcome the modular theory using the language module to approve his insights of human language.