Stephen van Vlack

Sookmyung Women`s University

Graduate School of TESOL

Discourse Analysis

(Spring 2006)

Week 13 - Riggenbach (1999), Chapter 3, pp. 53-145 & Bailey (2005), Chapter 3, pp. 89-118 - Answers

1. What are the features of four research types and how are they different? (Rigg)

There are four research types which are classified by three categories:

1) the typically used by the researchers under discussion,

 2) the researchers` essential beliefs,

2) the researchers` special interests.

 We can divide four research types into two categories: Macro-level or Micro-level. Micro-level based research types are conversation analysts and speech event analyst, while sociolinguists and ethnographers are based on Macro-level.

            Conversation analysts use as data videotapes and audiotapes of people interacting, supported by detailed transcripts. They believe that conversation can reveal truths about social contexts and that conversation invokes context. They are interested in the micro mechanics of conversation: sequencing, turn taking, repair.

            Speech event analysts: use as data the set of utterances, elicited or observed, that together perform a communicative function. They believe that research should result in a description of the speech setting, the participants and the structure of the event, set in a template-like sequence. They are interested in how speech act functions are realized in larger text units.

            Sociolinguists use as data language in use-observed or recorded communications. They believe that each community or subculture has its own unique set of conventions, rules, and patterns for the conduct of communication. They are interested in how these rules and patterns can be understood in the context of a general system that reflects the values and the structure of the society in which they occur.

            Ethnographer use as data interviews and participant and non-participant observations that occur in natural settings over a long period of time. They believe that cultural meanings are revealed by people`s behavior which can only be understood by incorporating the subjective perceptions and belief systems of the researcher. They are interested in developing descriptive and interpretive accounts that characterize the culture of a group or an individual.

2. What are the suggestions of developing original activities? (Rigg3)

For creating classroom materials that have a more macro-level focus, activities can highlight pieces of what can contribute to a more holistic understanding of culture rather than massive undertaking characteristics of culture. Student researchers can also conduct their research as ethnographers interested in describing culture and in observing how societal influences affect and shape behavior. Activities can be developed on the basis of what cultural constructs are likely to interest learners. Learners may want to explore diversity within their own culture. Morrison (1989) suggests that students analyze new broadcasts to determine the links an connections between events and the ways in which certain rhetorical modes are structured. This project can be individualized by allowing students to collect data on current news of interest to them and for a speaking activity this project could be taken a step further; students could act as reporters, imitating the rhetorical structures most appropriate for their own new stories, or they could create, produce, and act in their own television commercials, incorporating persuasive techniques they have observed in watching television commercials themselves.

3. What are the characteristics of conversation? (Rigg3)

The characteristics of the conversations are that it is the primary domain for the language socialization and language development, and it also is the most unspecialized type of conversation. Even thought there are few exceptions, everyone knows how to make conversation and they make conversation daily. Everyday conversation is not planned but spontaneous and it plays many roles. More than just changing and sharing the ideas people accomplish social functions like complimenting, asking question, apologizing, disagreeing, and making invitations. There also are the universal constraints since they occur all communicational systems and it smoothens the interaction and allow the speakers to reveal their competence of as speakers of a language and as a member of a society. Some components of the language is not teachable, but functions like speech acts are teachable. Conversations includes the knowledge of sociocultural rules of appropriateness and the discourse norms or the strategies that ensure successful communication. Mannerisms, which could be the style of the speaker, also could be seen in the conversation, that we could know about who the person is and how that person thinks.

4. Among 14 activities, which activity do you want to apply into your own classroom and why? What are your expectations?(Rigg3)

Among the 14 activities I want to apply activity 7, which is speech events to may class. I don`t teach in large class, and usually teacher privately, and other activities aren`t good to use because of the class size and the students proficiency level. With the intermediate learners of advanced learners it would be helpful to the discussions and opening/closing and turn taking thing. But for my students, they are mostly, novice and low intermediate level in case of speaking. I think it would do better if he/she gets the idea of speech events and have better idea about it. As they try to find the components of speech events and note the factors that affect them, I hope sometimes later on, he/she will be able to understand and participate that they encounter.

My expectations are that they at least aware of these components and can notice them as they have chance to encounter theses parts later on. Because of the limited language proficiency, they tend to use only one type of language, and don`t have idea of speech act. With the activity, they can at least notice these kind of factors, and can be alert as they have conversation with others or as they listen.

5. What aspects of intermediate learners should teachers be concerned as regards speaking issues? (B3)

Teachers should consider these characteristics of intermediate student`s speaking ability.

*Handle successfully a variety of uncomplicated, basic and communicative tasks and social situations

*Talk simply about self and family members

*Ask and answer questions and participate in simple conversations on topics beyond the most immediate needs

*Increase utterance length slightly, but speech may continue to be characterized by frequent long pauses, since the smooth incorporation of even basic conversational strategies is often hindered

*Improve pronunciation, which may continue to be strongly influenced by first language, and fluency may still be strained.

* Here is the important role of the listener (sympathetic interlocutors).

            As teachers we will need to help intermediate students build their vocabularies, improve their grammar, and extend the range of speech acts. Students may also need to improve their pronunciation accuracy. In addition, the learners are expanding their communicative competence, teachers should do deal to increase their communicative confidence.

            Vocabulary: the vocabulary of a language, the totality of its words, is called lexicon. The word lexicon is used to refer to the collectivity of words and morphemes in a given language. A prominent meaning of lexicon is that of the mental lexicon (or semantic memory) of any given individual, including his or her encyclopaedic knowledge of the world. We associate linguistic with non-linguistic knowledge as to build up categories of fields of words and things.

            Complex lexical combinations: collocations; idioms

*Collocations: lexical items consisting of lexical words from two different word classes which co-occur habitually.

*Idioms: Idioms are made up, like collocations, of more than one word form. But they are not full sentences. Idioms are opaque, which means learners cannot derive their meaning from their individual components as they generally can with collocations.

Grammar: Teachers need to pay attention to the effects of focus on form instruction. Only participants in the Focus on Form learners demonstrates significantly improved accuracy and suppliance of the target from, thus suggesting that it is possible to increase accuracy within a content-based instructional settings. If SLA generally consists of acquiring new form- meaning mappings, it follows that the most efficient type of attention to form would take place in a meaningful context, rather than as an isolated grammar component. SLA researchers that noticing a form is a prerequisite for its acquisition.

            Speech acts: Actual utterances can have various functions that are independent of form. Much of our ordinary use of language is just as much asking questions and giving commands as making statements, and even utterances tat have the form of declarative sentences.

            Pronunciation : Fluent articulation is probably man`s most complex motor skill. It involves the coordinated use of approximately 100 muscles. Such speech sounds are produced at a rate of about 15 per second. Articulation is the motor execution of a phonetic plan.

            Communicative confidence: Pragmatics is another branch of linguistics that is concerned with meaning. The chief focus of pragmatics is a person`s ability to derive meanings from specific kinds of speech situations- to recognize what the speaker is referring to, to relate new information to what has gone before. People who use a language to communicate with one another constitute a society, a language community.

            It is sensible to cover both listening and speaking. Topics should provide relevant vocabulary, grammar structures, and examples of speech acts as well as something to talk about.

6. How can teachers check intermediate speaker's understanding? (B3)

The most communication is produced among students if speaking tasks have four components. They contain an information gap, students are given time to plan what they are going to say, the tasks require a solution, and all students must reach agreement on the solution. Teachers can learners level in speaking by using diverse activity, and let them notice the output gap of what they can say and what they can`t, at this point, teacher can check their performance and also help them to aware the appropriate target speaking in a given context. Teachers should monitor and facilitate students while they are doing peer work or group work

7. What are key principles to support teaching of speaking to intermediate learners? (B3)

As intermediate level learners` English is not perfect, they may notice the gap what they want to say and what they can say. And also they notice that higher-level students use more proper language that is different from theirs. By planning speaking tasks that require learners to negotiate for meaning, teachers can give students valuable chances for practice and language development. T can use information gap, jigsaw activities.

            Design both transactional and interpersonal speaking activities. For this reason, teachers need to make them negotiate meaning through speaking activities. The second principle is that teachers need to design both transactional and interpersonal speaking activities. The purpose of interpersonal speech is to communicate with others to establish and maintain social relationship, and the purpose of transactional speech is to accomplish something. Topics of interpersonal speeches are various depending on participants` interest or relationship, so the content will be relatively unpredictable. However transactional speech contains highly predictable patterns, as the language used in similar situation is restricted, for example, asking price to a clear, answering directions to travelers. Therefore, as a teacher we should put them in both transactional and interpersonal settings. The third principle is that teachers should personalize the content of speaking activities. Making students participate in speaking activity is teachers` responsibility, so teachers should find something related to the students` circumstances, interests, and goals. Just using students` names in speaking activity can motivate students to speak. It is also important for teachers to find the topics that the students want to talk about and they can talk about, because these will provide students with more chances to use target language.

8. What kinds of activities can teachers use for developing speaking skills for intermediate learners? (Briefly explain.) (B3)

Bailey mentioned four kinds of activities. They are role-plays, picture-based activities, logic puzzles and information gap and jigsaw activities. He introduced three of them a role-play, story construction activity (picture-based activity) and logic puzzle.

            Bailey said role-plays are the ideal vehicle for practicing speech acts with intermediate learners. Role-plays allow students to try out appropriate English utterances in potentially difficult situations, before they must use them in real life. He introduced one role-play named a shopping trip in his book. It is to give the problem of explain students want to buy but do not know the exact name of them to them. However, he said the point of this exercise is not for students to learn the names of obscure household items, instead the purpose is to create a context in which students must practice using communication strategies. He suggested that to make speech act more challenging, we can remove the non-verbal element of face-to-face communication and have students make and decline invitations on the telephone. He said carrying out transactional speech on the telephone can be very challenging for intermediate learners. Also, he advised for a role-play it can be helpful to practice some standard phrases first.

            About picture-based activity, collaborative story telling, he started to say about many strengths in terms of the grammar and vocabulary of the students. He said we can design activities in which their receptive vocabulary can become productive vocabulary through discussion and use.

            Bailey said logic puzzles and similar activities are such powerful communication tasks because they have the Fotos`s point about four key components. The four key components are:

1. Tasks contain an information gap.

2. Students are given time to plan what they are going to say.

3. The tasks require a solution.

4. All students must reach agreement on the solution..

Also, he said the puzzle can be used as it is for groupwork, or it can be turned into a jigsaw activity in which two students are given different but complementary sets of information, which they must then share in English in order to solve the puzzle.