Stephen van Vlack

Sookmyung Women`s University

Graduate School of TESOL

Developing Bilingualism

Fall 2007

Week 6 - Answers

Hamers and Blanc - Chapter 5: Social and psychological foundations of bilinguality

1. What role does social networking play in language development? (pp. 111-112) What is it that language development is dependent on? (p. 110)

As we keep on mentioning over and over in this class, socialization (interaction with and in social networks) is the most important thing in providing not only models of language use but also in creating attitudes toward language and language use. It is through interaction with our social environment that we learn how not only language in general but each specific linguistic code available is to be used. We also learn what is important and valuable to our community and to us. Form-to function mapping, which is the direct result of internalizing experience with the outside world, can only come about as a product of socialization, for context is the key to this. I hope at this point that you can understand how socialization has such a strong affect on language use. Just remember, how the actual forms are internalized and put together is only partly due to socialization as there are generalized cognitive/neurological tendencies which apply there as well.

An important idea inherent in the concept of social networks is the fact that the social networks a person is involved in are constantly expanding along with language. Remember how linguistic development expands as a direct result of cognitive and even physical development in children? This is the same thing that happens here in relation to social networks. The development of a new cognitive concept can only come from the outside environment (social network). This is easy to understand. A child can only come up with new cognitive representations by watching other people engaging in such situations, or similar situations. If people in this particular person`s social network do not engage in a certain type of cognitive behavior, then the child generally won`t either, at least not very much. Cognitive representations that are not reinforced will simply whither away. If the cognitive representation is not initially internalized then no accompanying language forms or functions associated with that concept can be created. In this way, through the profound interaction of language and cognition, social networks play a large role in the development of language.

2. What are the two basic functions associated with language, which one develops first and what are their development reliant upon? (pp. 112-113)

The two basic functions associated with language are communicative and cognitive. In cases of normal development, communicative functions must be the first to arise. It is only after a certain degree of proficiency has been achieved in communicative functions that cognitive functions begin to develop. From this we can see that cognitive functions are built up upon the same basic principles of communicative functions but these basic concepts are extended and specialized. Cognitive functions are learned in much the same way that communicative functions are: that is, the child learns them by watching how others react cognitively to certain situations and then they measure their degree of success or they, themselves, react cognitively to a situation and measure their own success according to societal norms. As we saw in the last chapter, cognition and literacy are very closely linked. At the same time there are many people in the world who cannot read and there are also many people who would be termed semi-lingual.

The bottom line here is that communication is the basic function of language and, as such, forms a basis for all language use. Language used as a cognitive tool has been developed from the communicative roots of language and as a result is initially completely reliant on it.

3. How do social functions relate to language forms? (pp. 113-114)

Social functions and language forms have a very close relationship. This relationship starts in the pre-verbal stage and continues throughout a persons`s life. From the moment of birth a child starts to amass data on social functions from watching how others interact both with each other as well as herself directly. There seems to be a minimal amount of social knowledge needed before a child can go ahead and start gathering forms and relating them to functions and visa versa. Children use this social knowledge to determine what language is used for and why it is necessary. In a direct way, the forms that one uses and the functions that a child implements arise as a direct result of the social functions they observe. This simply means that a child will only use the forms and the communicative functions that they have seen used for a social purpose in the real world. It might seem really simple, but it must be stated: if the child has not seen (directly experienced) some social function demonstrated they will obviously not be able to use it.

So, for example, if a child grows up in a family in which politeness is considered very important they will develop a lot of forms and communicative functions related to politeness as a social function because they have seen this demonstrated over and over again and in different ways by their family members. The child will also develop high valorization levels for politeness which will keep her/him using polite forms and learning even more polite forms as her/his social networks broaden. The same super polite child might not have any means of expressing anger through expletives because they were never exposed to such language because such language forms do not fit the social forms highly valorized by their family. In this way we can see that social functions have a profound effect on what and how language will be learned.

The simple fact that the child needs to have a general understanding of their social networks and the basic functions that apply there lends credence to the belief that social functions are imperative to language development. Social functions show the child how language can be used as an extremely powerful tool for communication and later as tool for cognition. Looking very generally, if the child does not perceive a need for a language as a function in their society they simply will not learn it. Looking tat language in this way, we might see some potential problems for English in South Korea.

Children in Korea are constantly being told that English is super important and that they have to know it, but there is really little or no concrete no proof of that for the child who lives here. When can a Korean child really use English or be exposed to real English usage in Korea? The opportunities are for most children and adults, at best, highly limited. This forces the learner to take the forms they are learning in English out of any context and link them to Korean forms and indirectly to Korean functions. We know this is happening by simply looking at the way English IS indeed used in South Korean society. We can also possibly attribute the high rate of fossilization here to this phenomenon.

4. How do linguistic and cognitive development interact? (pp. 114-115)

Linguistic and cognitive development constantly interact. In the earliest stages of development new cognitive-based forms are mapped onto preexisting communicative functions and are, then, further mapped onto a new cognitive function. This integration of cognitive functions into the form-to-function mapping system changes the entire system. This trend continues for a period of time until the person has acquired enough cognitive forms and functions to separate the systems. Remember how we said earlier that one of the greatest differences between communicative and cognitive functions is the presence or absence of context. In decontextualized situations cognitive functioning takes over. With more and more uses of language in decontextualized situations (literacy), more cognitive functions are slowly integrated into the communicative system, and language slowly begins to free itself from the limiting constraints of situational context and eventually breaks free both from a reliance on use in context and on the surface rules of the particular language as it is used in communicative situations. The cognitive side of language becomes antonymous. Because of this separation it becomes harder to communicate decontextualized ideas in language alone.

5. How does a child develop social and psychological processes? (pp. 115-116)

A child develops social and psychological processes by observing what other people do and mimicking them. It is this mimicking which means how children end up behaving is much like the people around them. This is the initial step. It is not that this mimicking ever really ends. We forever try to emulate the behavior and attitudes of the people we like and respect. It is from this basic behavior that our social base and later, with more experience and exposure, our psychological processes are developed. Schema are built out of these representations.

6. What are the basic stages in cognitive development? (pp. 116-117)

Hamers and Blanc (2000) describe four main stages in cognitive development.

Representations

Knowledge is stored as a representation that has a symbolic function. These representations have associations with specific language forms and initially even prototypical situations. Once we have enough of these stored up with then start to organize them into systems and conceptualize them further so they are no longer associated to particular situations anymore. It is at this point that we are ready to move onto the next stage.

Cognitive dimensions

It is at this stage that the child uses both analyzed knowledge and cognitive control. Again, the child needs to use both of these to further build up and regularize their cognitive processing.

Language as a cognitive tool

It is at this point that the child uses language to actually work through cognitive processing. The child will actually uses language forms to help them reason through problems.

Language as an object of cognitive processing

With experience and more exposure to the world, the child is able to further conceptualize their cognition. Cognition begins to enter the real of the abstract. What is interesting is that a lot of these abstract principles are derived from language itself. If you follow the cognitive scientists` belief that linguistic knowledge is built out of the same set of finite principles as general knowledge the this makes perfect sense. Such concepts as AGENT, THEME, GOAL, PATIENT are universal concepts that are inherent in all languages. People begin to think using these concepts in ways that are separate from languages.

The development of literacy

Literacy, as we discussed last week, is composed of highly decontextualized situations. From this we realize that the person needs to use language in a very different way than if they were talking about things that are right there in front of them. In this way, reading and writing require highly evolved cognitive processes that rely on strategies and thinking that are above the constraints of language.

7. How does contextualization relate to cognitive processes? (pp. 117-121)

The information processing approach focuses on skills which are acquired, while the analysis-control approach focuses on the functional side of language. Both of these correspond to Bialystok & Ryan`s dimensions of analyzed knowledge and cognitive control. In analyzed knowledge the person is managing and ever reanalyzing their representations, while cognitive control is use to access and arrange specific pieces of information for use. Both of these systems are necessary for someone to develop language as a cognitive tool.

Contextualization relates to cognitive processes in that the more contextualization there is in a given situation the less abstract cognitive processing will be necessary. Think of it this way. In situations where simple communicative functions are exclusively employed there must be a large amount of situational context. As soon as the situation becomes less contextualized, then the speaker has to employ a lot more cognitive strategies as opposed to merely communicative to get their point across. In an abstract, highly decontextualized situation, then even more cognitive strategies and even cognitive concepts must first be used to think about the ideas and then these concepts must be converted back into language forms.

8. How is language use self-regulated? (p. 122)

Self-regulation works basically as a way of evaluating what is going on around us. We compare both our own and the behavior of those around us to social and linguistic norms (what is accepted and rewarded in our society and in that particular situation). By analyzing what we do and see around us we better figure out how to be a successful communicator/thinker/reactor in our society and in different situations. This observations are compiled into one big system which we then use to monitor our output before we go to say something.

9. How is it that the two language a bilingual has can be interdependent at so-called deeper levels of processing? (pp. 126-128)

Language use as a cognitive organizer occurs at three different levels, the first two of these levels are related to and specifically controlled by each of the two languages the speaker has and the third level exists separately from language forms. The basic idea is this: language is stored in the brain as a series of propositions. These propositions are based on relational categorizations. So, for example the fact that there is an AGENT which does an action is a proposition. Now, some of these propositions are going to be language specific, but many of them are universal. They are shared by both languages. Hamers and Blanc believe that with enough practice with the cognitive aspects of each of the languages, the speaker will eventually come to recognize that many propositions exist in all languages and indeed exist as general propositions outside of language as well. They will then cease to think using the constraints of language, or any particular language, and will move to thinking in propositions. It is in this way that the two languages a bilingual has can actually be interdependent. This is related to the CUCB proposal of Kecskes and Papp (2000).

Kecskes and Papp )2000), Chapter 5

1. What is transfer and what kinds of things transfer?

The simple idea underlying linguistic transfer is that certain bits of knowledge will be made available for use from one language to another. In its most optimal conditions it is like throwing a ball from one hand to the other. For transfer though the ball may only be sent from one hand to other in bits which arrive separately and may need to be pieced back together again when they arrive. With transfer, as with many things, it is generally thought that such phenomenon occurs from a stronger system to a weaker system (language) and this is generally the case, but it is important to remember that in a bilingual situation the different languages might have different centers of strength. As Kecskes and Papp (2000) have gone to huge pains to point out because of the different acquisition histories and different foci of a first language and a foreign language students windup having different strengths in each provided both are learned with a high degree of intensity.

For the first language the main strength revolves around its fluency. The first language is always available for use, particularly in its spoken form, and through its multitude of connections is much more richer and automatic in its processing. The L1 requires little thought to use although it controls our thought. For the foreign language, as we well know, it is not linked to sound so much as to sign. We don`t actually learn the sounds of foreign language in the same way we learn the sounds of our first language. Our attention is focused on signs/abstract symbols which we used to represent the language. We learn to use our foreign language in an overprocessed way. We don`t and can`t use it fluently because of the paucity of connections between elements of the foreign language and even between elements of the foreign language in the first language. The way we are taught and practice our foreign language forces us to process it in a much more controlled way. In addition, the type of particular language forms (formal) we are exposed to in the foreign language require more specific types of processing strategies. Such processes lead to what we will here call the metas.

Within the metas we have two basic types of interest for our discussion here; metalinguistic awareness and metacognitive awareness. Metalinguistic awareness is being more aware of some particular aspects of language, such as specific elements of word meaning, structural relationships, morphological tendencies and practices, among other things. Because of this metalinguistic awareness we are not only better able to control our language, but we are able to create much more complex types of (even more efficient) language. Metacognitive awareness involves being aware of cognitive processes. Through metacognitive awareness we have a better understanding of not only what we are thinking, but how we are thinking and based on this how we actually go about doing things, such as problem solving. Because language use involves cognition both of these skills are necessary for higher types of language use or what we can simply describe as literate language use (written speech).

The main point of what Kecskes and Papp (2000) are trying to argue, actually in this entire book, is that we learn metacognitive and metalinguistic skills through the acquisition of another language and particularly in a foreign let language acquisition setting. This sets up a perfect scenario for transfer. The thinking skills that one learns from foreign languages helps them in being able to use their native language in a more formal manner while the fluency and productive skills one has in the first language will hopefully be able to transfer onto the foreign language as well. This is our hope anyway.

2. What are some of the variables that affect transfer?

Transfer does not always ensue, so there must be ways or promoting as well as impeding it. Since we seek to do the former and avoid the latter, we need to understand what some of the variables are which affect transfer between languages. First and foremost it is the level of proficiency in the two languages and obviously particularly in the foreign language which affects a person`s ability to transfer. When the L1 totally eclipses the L2 then the possibility of transfer is small because of the way the L2 has fused onto the L1 forms. Kecskes and Papp (2000) mention two types of bilinguality in the book without (annoyingly) stating what those two types are. We will go so far as the say there are, in reverse acquisition order, three: compound, coordinate and dependent. In the earliest stages of language development it seems most appropriate to define the relationship of the L2 to the L1 as being dependent. The specific forms of the words in the L2 are linked directly to their translation equivalents in the L1. From our earlier studies we know this is a link only at the lexical level and probably will not lead to transfer because there are no links at the conceptual level at all and at this low level of proficiency well-established metacognitive and metalinguistic knowledge and strategies have yet to develop.

When the L2 forms begin to develop their own conceptual bases things change. Translation partners will still be linked at the lexical level but the L2 forms will have their own specific underlying concept to support the form. It is at this point that metalinguistic and metacognitive skills begin to develop. The learner begins to notice strong differences in the different languages that they are now exposed to based on usage patterns. By looking at these differences they begin to develop new strategies for metalinguistic analysis. Once more, it does seem to be true in a very general way that human beings are, to a certain extent, genetically programmed to look first for differences before looking for similarities. Looking back in an evolutionary way we might argue that this is a basic type of survival skill. While we need to look at two things we will probably first and foremost look at the differences between them because that is what will give us more important immediate information on what to do and what not to do. Based on this point we can argue that people, in a subsequent language learning situation anyway, first form a coordinate type of organization in relation to forms and their concepts.

With more exposure and more equalized exposure to the foreign language it then becomes clear that there are not only differences but also a large amount of similarities between the languages and this is when we start to form a compound type of organization. The neutralization we have talked about earlier in the course kicks into action and a common underlying conceptual base (CUCB) is formed. It is in this compound type of organization that we expect the most transfer to occur and not only from the L1 to the L2 but also from the L2 to the L1. Transfer can be used to fill certain gaps in skills and knowledge between the two languages. Important to remember, however, is that, according to the premise put forth by Kecskes and Papp, transfer really can only take place when there is this CUCB. Without the common underlying conceptual base transfer will have difficulty taking place because transfer is based on the awareness of similarities rather than the awareness of differences between languages and the CUCB is a list of conceptual similarities held by all languages present.

3. How might memory and language affect mental operations?

The bottom line is that we have different types of memories. Two of the main types discussed in Kecskes and Papp (2000) are declarative (static) and procedural (dynamic). Of course there are more different types of memory, and researchers disagree how many types there are and how they might develop and affect each other, but this is a good place to start. These two different types of memories will transfer differently and separately depending on the specific cognitive makeup of the person in question. Someone with a lower level of proficiency in the L2 will transfer declarative knowledge (knowledge about the lexical forms of language) from the L1. A person with a higher proficiency as a result of a more intensive exposure to and practice with the L2 (resulting in a CUCB) will show more sophisticated transfer patterns. They will be able to transfer procedural knowledge from one language to the other without necessarily interfering. Again this is a special skill available only to bilinguals and it makes them much more adaptable and suited to different environments than monolinguals. It is also important to remember that this type of skill transfer can only take place when we are focusing not on differences but on similarities between different languages.